| |
| |
| Foreword | |
| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| List of Contributors | |
| |
| |
| A Multifaceted View of Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modern Fatigue: A Historical Perspective | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overstrain and Modern Society in 1900 | |
| |
| |
| |
| The "Fatigue Problem" | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neurasthenia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Between Nervous Fatigue and Chronic Fatigue: Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chronic Fatigue Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burnout and Modern Society in 2000 | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evolutionary Aspects of Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Man's Situation in a Phylogenetic Perspective | |
| |
| |
| |
| From Intuitive Insight to Experimental Documentation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organization of Stress-Induced Response Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Aspects | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Four Triads of Response | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Vigilance (Freezing) Reaction (VR) | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Playing Dead (Inhibitory) Reaction (PR) | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Defense (Alarm) Reaction (DeR) | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Defeat Reaction (DfR) | |
| |
| |
| |
| DeR and DfR Involvements in Animal Models of Human Society | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implications Concerning Man in Modern Society | |
| |
| |
| |
| Concluding Remarks | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress - It Is All in the Brain | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Starting Point: Consensus Statements | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Alarm: When and Why Does this Alarm Occur? | |
| |
| |
| |
| CATS: From Words to Formal Logics and Theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Expectancies: What Do Brains Really Do? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Expectancies: Priorities, Probabilities, and Values | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variance in Stress Responses: Stimulus Expectancy | |
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| |
| |
| Variance in the Stress Responses. Coping: Positive Response Outcome Expectancies | |
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| |
| |
| Variance in the Stress Responses. Lacking or Negative Response Outcome Expectancies: Helplessness and Hopelessness | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Variance in Coping Concepts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Covert Coping | |
| |
| |
| |
| Outcome Evaluations, Fear, Anxiety and Alarm | |
| |
| |
| |
| Access to the Alarm System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress as an Alarm System: Adaptive or Maladaptive? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Allostatic Load - Repeated Strong Arousals - Training or Straining? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustained Activation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress and Disease: Coping and Health | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustained Activation, Sustained Attention and Sensitization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rumination and Sustained Activation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Too Much Coping - Being Too Good: the Dangers of Narcissism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Social Inequality in Health and in Response Outcome Expectancies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Brain Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Stress at the Societal and Organizational Level | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collective Traumatic Stress: Crisis and Catastrophes | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction: The Individual as a Citizen | |
| |
| |
| |
| Society's Denial of Psychic Trauma and its Consequences to Health | |
| |
| |
| |
| Central Concepts and Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disasters: Incidents and Types | |
| |
| |
| |
| Communication Disasters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Confrontational Support | |
| |
| |
| |
| Myths | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disaster Stressors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Time Phase and Geographical Zone Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Individual Versus Collective Trauma | |
| |
| |
| |
| Four Types of Danger | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shock Trauma | |
| |
| |
| |
| Longlasting Danger and Threat | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silent Trauma | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disaster Behavior | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collective Stress: Causal Mechanisms Psychopathology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Psychological Epidemics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Toxic Disasters | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress - Why Managers Should Care | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress - An Organizational Perspective | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organization - A Biological Entity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drivers of Constant Needs of Organizational Changes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational Stressors' Impact on the Bottom Line | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimal Organizational Stress and Slack | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational Stress Models - Concepts and Definitions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational Inefficiency and Organizational Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ingredients for Healthy and Productive Work Environments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Work, Stress and Productivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational Effectiveness and Perceived Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress Intervention and Implications for Organizational Health and Productivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| QWC - Theory, Model and Applicability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to QWC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| QWC Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Application of QWC in Organizational Stress and Productivity Studies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational and Employee Health Intervention in a Bank | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational and Employee Health During Organizational Changes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organizational Health, Biological Markers and Productivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multiorganizational Assessments of Organizational and Employee Well-Being | |
| |
| |
| |
| Leadership and Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Performance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implementation of Productive and Healthy Work Practices | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Empowered Organization and Personnel Health | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Historical Perspective | |
| |
| |
| |
| Concepts Related to Work Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| How to Evaluate Decision Latitude? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Questionnaires | |
| |
| |
| |
| Relationship Between Decision Latitude and Health | |
| |
| |
| |
| Decision Latitude and Physiological Reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| What Can Be Done for the Improvement of Decision Latitude? | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Can Health be Subject to Management Control? Suggestions and Experiences | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Health and Profitability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Health in the Balance Sheet | |
| |
| |
| |
| Idea | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experiences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Health in the Profit and Loss Account | |
| |
| |
| |
| Idea | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experiences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| HR Costings | |
| |
| |
| |
| Idea | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experiences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Recent Management Control Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Idea | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experiences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Health Statements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Idea | |
| |
| |
| |
| Experiences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Health and Management Control in the Swedbank: A Case Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusion and Dilemmas | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Stress and Brain Plasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Neonatal and Pubertal Ontogeny of the Stress Response: Implications for Adult Physiology and Behavior | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress, Homeostasis, Allostasis, and Allostatic Load | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neonatal Development of the HPA Axis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Life Events and the Shaping of the HPA Axis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pubertal Development of the HPA Axis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Puberty as a Period of Intervention | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implications for Human Health and Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions and Future Directions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neurobiological and Behavioral Consequences of Exposure to Childhood Traumatic Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Exposure to Stress in Early Life and Stress Response Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gene Expression, Myelination, Neural Morphology, Neurogenesis and Synaptogenesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Differential Sensitivity to the Effects of Stress in Various Brain Regions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hippocampus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Corpus Callosum | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cerebral Cortex | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cerebellar Vermis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neuropsychiatric Consequences and Psychopathology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Depression | |
| |
| |
| |
| Posttraumatic Stress Disorder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Borderline Personality Disorder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dissociative Identity Disorder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Substance Abuse | |
| |
| |
| |
| Perspectives | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgements | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Brain in Stress - Influence of Environment and Lifestyle on Stress-Related Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Dynamic Brain | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cytokines and Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Psychoneuroimmunology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Is the Stress Response Comparable to an Inflammatory Reaction? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Relationship Between Chronic Stress and Stress-Related Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| The HPA Axis Out of Balance - a Link to Depression? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cytokines and Depression | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neuronal Atrophy and Loss in Response to Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress-Related Mental Disorders and Neurodegenerative Diseases | |
| |
| |
| |
| Unhealthy Environments; a Link to PTSD? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions and Future Prospects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Healthy Cortisol Response | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Hippocampus as a GC Target | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoids, Stress and Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoids, Stress and Hippocampal-Dependent Cognition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoids, Stress and Neurogenesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoids, Stress and Atrophy of Dendritic Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoids, Stress and Neurotoxicity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoids, Stress and the Endangerment of Hippocampal Neurons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disruption of Neuronal Energetics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Endangering GC Actions that are Independent of Energetic Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disruption of Cellular Defenses | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoid Endangerment and Apoptosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucocorticoid Endangerment and Inflammation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clinical Implications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Main Points | |
| |
| |
| |
| Future | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Antistress, Well-Being, Empathy and Social Support | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Brief Overview of the Fight-Flight or Stress and Defense Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deduction of Physiology of the Antistress Pattern from the Physiology of Breastfeeding | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Chemistry of Oxytocin | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effects of Oxytocin | |
| |
| |
| |
| Behavior and Social Interaction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physiological Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Long-Term Effects in Response to Repeatedly Given Oxytocin | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanisms Involved in the Long-Term Effects of Oxytocin | |
| |
| |
| |
| Release of Oxytocin in Response to Touch | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensory Nerves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mother and Child Interaction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Same System is Activated in Connection with Sexual Activity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxytocin Is Not Only Released by Stimulation of Sensory Nerves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conditioned Oxytocin Release | |
| |
| |
| |
| Activation of Oxytocin Release via Psychological Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Health and Social Interaction | |
| |
| |
| |
| How Does Closeness and Support Improve Health? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Social Relationships | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lifestyle Without Closeness | |
| |
| |
| |
| Touch Therapies | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress, Sleep and Restitution | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Physiological Description of Sleep | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Effects of Stress on Sleep | |
| |
| |
| |
| Human Studies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Animal Studies on Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physiological Processes During Sleep | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sleep and Stress Markers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sleep Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sleep Loss and Disease | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sleep Regulation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Final Comment | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Stress and the Individual | |
| |
| |
| |
| Brain Mechanisms In Stress and Negative Affect | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Brain-Imaging Techniques and Paradigms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theories of Emotion and Neuroimaging Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dismantling Fear from Disgust: a Theory Test | |
| |
| |
| |
| Emotional Activation versus Emotional Control: Activating, Controlling and Modulating Brain Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Imaging Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Studies of Anxiety Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disentangling Studies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Function and Structure in Brain-Imaging | |
| |
| |
| |
| Relieving Stress: Treatment Studies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Genetic Influences on Stress and Brain Activity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Psychosomatic Stress and Emotional Brain Circuits | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Is It Dangerous To Be Afraid? | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Animal Models of Fear's Behavioral Component | |
| |
| |
| |
| Do You Run Because You Are Scared or Are You Scared Because You Run? | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Sketch of the Organization of Fear | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Price of Being Conscious | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mediators of Emotions | |
| |
| |
| |
| To Stop in Time | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Sea Horse that Bolts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Can a Vicious Circle Be Broken? | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue and Recovery | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue - a Distinct Entity or Part of a Syndrome? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue-Dominating Syndromes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue Among the General Population | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue, Chronic Fatigue and Chronic Semantic Confusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Assessing Fatigue | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress-Related Fatigue | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue Scale Versus Other Scales Assessing Fatigue-Related Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue Development Over Time - Risk Factors and Protective Factors | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Stress in the Etiology of Medically Unexplained Syndromes | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Medically Unexplained Syndromes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evidence for an Association with Psychosocial Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Life Events as Risk Factors for Illness Onset | |
| |
| |
| |
| Occupational Stress and "Technostress" as Risk Factors for Illness Onset | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress as an Exacerbating Factor in Medically Unexplained Illnesses | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Negative Mood as a Mediating Variable | |
| |
| |
| |
| Symptom Amplification | |
| |
| |
| |
| Classical Conditioning | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chronic Neuroendocrine Dysfunction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cardiovascular and Neuroendocrine Responses to Acute Stressors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implications for Diagnosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implications for Treatment | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxidative Inflammatory Stress in Obesity and Diabetes | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxidative Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Inflammatory Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxidative Stress in Obesity and Diabetes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Antioxidant and Antiinflammatory Effect of Insulin | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mental Stress and Inflammation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Atherogenesis and Insulin | |
| |
| |
| |
| The New Paradigm | |
| |
| |
| |
| Future Horizons | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Metabolic Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| History | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metabolic Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Definition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Prevalence and Causes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Insulin Resistance | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Abdominal Obesity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ and Site of Synthesis for Inflammatory Markers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hormones in Metabolic Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cortisol | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sex Hormones and Growth Hormone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measuring Cortisol | |
| |
| |
| |
| Circadian Variation in Cortisol Secretion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hypertension | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress Axes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Genetic Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Depression | |
| |
| |
| |
| The "Small Baby Syndrome" | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress and Obesity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Prevention and Therapy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chronic Pain: the Diathesis-Stress Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Conceptual Model of the Transition from Acute to Chronic Pain and Emotional Distress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Supporting the Conceptual Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| Base Rates of Psychopathology | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Diathesis-Stress Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| Melzack's Neuromatrix Theory of Pain and Emotional Distress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgements | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Emotional Stress, Positive Emotions, and Psychophysiological Coherence | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Emotional Basis of Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Breaking the Stress Cycle: The Power of Positive Emotions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Positive Emotion-Focused Tools and Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Freeze-Frame: A Positive Emotion Refocusing Technique | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Steps of Freeze-Frame | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heart Lock-In: An Emotional Restructuring Technique | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Steps of Heart Lock-In | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Scientific Basis of the HeartMath Techniques | |
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| The Generation of Emotions: A Pattern-Matching Process | |
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| More Than a Pump: The Heart's Key Role | |
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| The Physiology of Positive Emotions | |
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| Psychophysiological Coherence | |
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| Revisiting the HeartMath Techniques: A Repatterning Process | |
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| Heart Rhythm Coherence Feedback Training: Facilitating Coherence | |
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| Conclusions and Implications | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| Note | |
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| References | |
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| Stress Systems in Aging - Cognitions and Dementia | |
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| Introduction and Overview | |
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| Endocrine Systems in the Healthy Elderly | |
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| Basal Activity of the HPA System | |
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| Stimulated Reactivity of the HPA System | |
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| DHEA, Estrogen, and Testosterone | |
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| Dehydroepiandrostendione | |
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| Estrogen | |
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| Testosterone | |
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| Cognitive Function in the Healthy Elderly and Impact of Endocrine Stress Reactivity | |
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| Stress Systems and Dementia | |
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| Summary and Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Stress and Addiction | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Stress, Alcohol and Nicotine | |
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| What Are the Biological Underpinnings? | |
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| Animal Experimental Models | |
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| Stress and Self-Administration of Dependence-Producing Drugs in Experimental Animals | |
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| Drugs of Abuse and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis | |
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| Neurobiological Correlates to Stress-Induced Drug Intake | |
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| The Mesocorticolimbic Dopamine System | |
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| Sensitization | |
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| Stress, Sensitization and the Mesocorticolimbic Dopamine System | |
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| Stress and Inhibitory Control | |
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| Stress-Sensitivity and Risk for Excessive Drug Self-Administration | |
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| Human Studies | |
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| Stress and Gender | |
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| Sensitization in Humans? | |
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| Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |