| |
| |
| Notes About the Updated Edition | |
| |
| |
| Robert Huber, 1909-1996: A Life of Influence and Integrity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Why Use Argument to Influence Others? | |
| |
| |
| Argument Widely Used | |
| |
| |
| The Psychological Need for Good Argument | |
| |
| |
| Argument Defined | |
| |
| |
| Argument Is Only One Phase of Persuasion | |
| |
| |
| The Processes of Argument and the Processes of Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Argument and Emotion | |
| |
| |
| The Study of Argument Versus the Study of Logic | |
| |
| |
| Growing Demands for Argument | |
| |
| |
| The Role of Argument | |
| |
| |
| In Advocacy | |
| |
| |
| In Propaganda | |
| |
| |
| In Education and Learning | |
| |
| |
| In Inquiries and Investigations | |
| |
| |
| In Discussion | |
| |
| |
| In Debate | |
| |
| |
| In Rhetorical Criticism | |
| |
| |
| Elements of the Study of Argument | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| With What Kinds of Subjects Is Argument Effective? | |
| |
| |
| Propositions as Subjects for Argument | |
| |
| |
| Purpose of Speakers Using Argument | |
| |
| |
| Types of Propositions | |
| |
| |
| Fact | |
| |
| |
| Value | |
| |
| |
| Policy | |
| |
| |
| Testing Your Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Am I Interested or Can I Become in the Proposition? | |
| |
| |
| Will My Audience Wish to Hear Me Discuss the Topic? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Timely? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Suitable for the Occasion? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Narrow Enough to Be Covered Within the Time Limits? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Suitable for Oral Presentation? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Subject to Disagreement? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Clear Rather than Ambiguous? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Capable of Being Supported with Evidence? | |
| |
| |
| Is It Significant Enough to Be Worthy of Discussion? | |
| |
| |
| Is There a Basis for Comparison? | |
| |
| |
| Does the Proposition Involve a Single Subject? | |
| |
| |
| Wording the Proposition | |
| |
| |
| General Occasions | |
| |
| |
| Debates | |
| |
| |
| Public Discussions | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis and Definition | |
| |
| |
| Analysis Defined | |
| |
| |
| Rules for Good Analysis | |
| |
| |
| Subdivide by One Principle | |
| |
| |
| Avoid Subdivisions that Overlap | |
| |
| |
| Uncover All the Parts | |
| |
| |
| No Subdivision Should Equal the Whole Subject | |
| |
| |
| Utilize a Significant Principle | |
| |
| |
| Be Sure that a Proper Interrelationship Among the Headings Is Present | |
| |
| |
| Discovering the Main Issues | |
| |
| |
| Definition of Main Issues | |
| |
| |
| Analysis for Uncovering Subissues | |
| |
| |
| Discovering Main Issues According to Type of Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Propositions of Fact | |
| |
| |
| Propositions of Value | |
| |
| |
| Propositions of Policy | |
| |
| |
| Stock Issues and Stock Ways of Dividing Subjects | |
| |
| |
| Chronological | |
| |
| |
| Spatial | |
| |
| |
| Topical | |
| |
| |
| Psychological | |
| |
| |
| Logical | |
| |
| |
| Definition | |
| |
| |
| Logical Definition | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Example | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Comparison | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Contrast | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Synonym | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Etymology or Origin | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Negation | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Enumeration or Division | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Authority | |
| |
| |
| Definition by History | |
| |
| |
| The Steps in Preliminary Analysis | |
| |
| |
| Complete or Continuing Analysis | |
| |
| |
| Analysis in Reading, Listening, Writing Essays, and Writing Examinations | |
| |
| |
| Reading | |
| |
| |
| Listening | |
| |
| |
| Writing Essays | |
| |
| |
| Writing Examinations | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gathering Material for Building Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Necessity of an Organized System of Gathering Material | |
| |
| |
| Importance of Your Own Knowledge and Thinking | |
| |
| |
| Exchanging Opinions and Knowledge with Others | |
| |
| |
| Discussion | |
| |
| |
| Personal Interviews | |
| |
| |
| Letters and E-mail | |
| |
| |
| Observation | |
| |
| |
| Conducting Original Experiments and Research | |
| |
| |
| Using the Library | |
| |
| |
| Have a Research Plan | |
| |
| |
| Know What You Want to Find Out | |
| |
| |
| Develop Search Terms | |
| |
| |
| Add Additional Goals and Key Words as Your Search | |
| |
| |
| Progresses | |
| |
| |
| Utilize Library Resources | |
| |
| |
| Reference Materials | |
| |
| |
| Online Resources | |
| |
| |
| Periodicals | |
| |
| |
| Books | |
| |
| |
| Inter-Library Loan | |
| |
| |
| United States Government Documents | |
| |
| |
| Multimedia | |
| |
| |
| Consult a Librarian for Additional Assistance | |
| |
| |
| Internet Research | |
| |
| |
| Recording Your Data | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influencing Through Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Definition of Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Types of Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Factual Examples | |
| |
| |
| Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Opinions of Authorities | |
| |
| |
| Testimony of Lay Witnesses | |
| |
| |
| Documents, Legal Papers, and the Like | |
| |
| |
| Arguments to Validate Evidence from Authorities | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Has Made a Study | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Was Trained in Research | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Is Free from Prejudice | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Is Free from Exaggeration | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Is Consistent | |
| |
| |
| Arguments to Invalidate or Refute Evidence from Authorities | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Quoted Did Not Make a Study | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Quoted Was Not Trained in Research | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Quoted Is Prejudiced | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Exaggeration | |
| |
| |
| The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Inconsistency | |
| |
| |
| Arguments to Validate and Invalidate Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Has the Unit of the Statistics Been Carefully Defined? | |
| |
| |
| Are the Statistical Units an Accurate Index of What We Want to Know? | |
| |
| |
| Are the Statistical Units Comparable in Terms of Size and Relevance? | |
| |
| |
| Do Other Studies of the Same Nature Verify These Facts? | |
| |
| |
| Tests of Ordinary Witnesses | |
| |
| |
| Did the Witness Have the Opportunity to Observe the Happening Directly? | |
| |
| |
| Was the Witness Physically Capable of Observing the Happening? | |
| |
| |
| Is the Witness Capable of Accurate Reporting? | |
| |
| |
| Is the Witness Free from Tendencies to Exaggerate? | |
| |
| |
| Is the Witness Free from Personal Involvement? | |
| |
| |
| Does the Testimony of the Witness Constitute an Admission? | |
| |
| |
| Can It Pass the "Hearsay" Tests? | |
| |
| |
| Tests for Documents and Legal Papers | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influencing Through Induction | |
| |
| |
| Propositions with Which Induction Is Effective | |
| |
| |
| Induction Defined | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Induction | |
| |
| |
| The Use of Induction in Discovering or Verifying Knowledge | |
| |
| |
| Induction and the Sampling Process | |
| |
| |
| Induction and Public Opinion Polls | |
| |
| |
| Induction and the Case-Study Method | |
| |
| |
| Induction and Experimental Study | |
| |
| |
| Induction and the Empricial Method | |
| |
| |
| Induction and Universal Laws | |
| |
| |
| Lines of Argument to Validate or Invalidate Induction | |
| |
| |
| Are the Facts True? | |
| |
| |
| Are the Examples Universal or Isolate Instances? | |
| |
| |
| Do the Examples Cover a Sufficient Period of Time? | |
| |
| |
| Are the Examples Cited Typical or Atypical? | |
| |
| |
| Are There Significant Negative Instances? | |
| |
| |
| Is the Conclusion Properly Stated? | |
| |
| |
| The "What Harm?" or "So What?" Argument | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influencing Through Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Propositions with Which Deduction Is Effective | |
| |
| |
| Deductive Reasoning Defined | |
| |
| |
| The Syllogism and Its Parts | |
| |
| |
| The Enthymeme | |
| |
| |
| Types of Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Categorical Deduction | |
| |
| |
| The True or Proved Major Premise Versus the False or Unproved | |
| |
| |
| The True or Proved Minor Premise Versus the False or Unproved | |
| |
| |
| Distribution Versus Lack of Distribution of Terms | |
| |
| |
| Four Terms, or the Fallacy of Equivocation | |
| |
| |
| Negative Premises | |
| |
| |
| Disjunctive Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Using Disjunctive Deduction Effectively | |
| |
| |
| Evaluating or Refuting Disjunctive Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Hypothetical Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Rules for Hypothetical Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Using Hypothetical Deduction Effectively | |
| |
| |
| Evaluating or Refuting Hypothetical Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Sorites | |
| |
| |
| Deduction in Argumentative Speeches | |
| |
| |
| Proposition of Fact | |
| |
| |
| Proposition of Value | |
| |
| |
| Proposition of Policy | |
| |
| |
| A Summary of Lines of Argument on Deduction | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influencing Through Causal Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Propositions with Which Causal Reasoning Is Effective | |
| |
| |
| Causal Reasoning Defined | |
| |
| |
| Types of Causal Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Cause-to-Effect Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Effect-to-Cause Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Effect-to-Effect Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Argument from Sign Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Causal Lines of Argument | |
| |
| |
| Does the Alleged Cause Have the Means, Power, Facilities, and/or Desire to Produce the Effect? | |
| |
| |
| Is This the Sole Cause or Are There Other Causes? | |
| |
| |
| Is This Cause Significant or Insignificant? | |
| |
| |
| Is This an Original or Contributing Cause? | |
| |
| |
| Are There or Will There Be Counteracting Causes? | |
| |
| |
| Has Coincidence Been Mistaken for Causal Relationship? | |
| |
| |
| Summary of the Lines of Argument on Causal Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influencing Through Reasoning from Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Propositions with Which Reasoning from Analogy Is Effective | |
| |
| |
| Reasoning from Analogy Defined | |
| |
| |
| Relationship to Induction | |
| |
| |
| Relationship to Causal Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Lines of Argument for Reasoning from Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Do the Similarities Outweigh the Differences? | |
| |
| |
| Do the Differences Outweigh the Similarities? | |
| |
| |
| Are the Similarities or Differences Significant or Insignificant? | |
| |
| |
| Summary of Lines of Argument by Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Summary of the Interrelationships of the Various Types of Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Refutation: Blocking the Arguments of Others | |
| |
| |
| Definition | |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Challenging Analysis and Definition | |
| |
| |
| Refutation Through Minimizing | |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Denying the Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Demonstrating the Opposite | |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Exposing Fallacies in Reasoning | |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Exposing Special Types of Fallacies | |
| |
| |
| Arguing in a Circle | |
| |
| |
| Assuming a More General Truth that Involves the Point at Issue | |
| |
| |
| The Fallacious Question | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Prejudice (Argumentum ad Populum) | |
| |
| |
| Argument Involving Persons (Argumentum ad Hominem) | |
| |
| |
| Shifting Ground | |
| |
| |
| Argument from Tradition and Custom | |
| |
| |
| An Appeal to the Ignorance of the Opposite | |
| |
| |
| False Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| Fallacy of Division | |
| |
| |
| Fallacy of Equivocation | |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Special Methods | |
| |
| |
| Reducing the Argument to an Absurdity (Reductio ad Absurdum) | |
| |
| |
| Adopting Opposing Arguments (Turning the Tables) | |
| |
| |
| Method of Residues | |
| |
| |
| The Dilemma | |
| |
| |
| Exposing Inconsistencies | |
| |
| |
| Exposing Irrelevant Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Logic Is Not Enough: Use Other Sources of Persuasion, Too | |
| |
| |
| Constituent Elements in Persuasion: Logos, Pathos, Ethos, and Style | |
| |
| |
| This Chapter-A Suggested Outline for Further Study | |
| |
| |
| Pathos: Psychological or Emotional Appeals | |
| |
| |
| Capturing and Holding Attention | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Basic Wants | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Blocked Wants-The Hate Object | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Symbols of Identification | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Emotionally Loaded Words | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Sentiments | |
| |
| |
| Associated-Attitude Appeal | |
| |
| |
| Appeals to Prejudice | |
| |
| |
| Other Factors in Pathos | |
| |
| |
| How to Use Emotional Appeals with Argumentative Speeches | |
| |
| |
| Appeals in Main Headings | |
| |
| |
| Use in the Development of Each Argument | |
| |
| |
| Emotional Appeals in the Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Psychological Factors Within the Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Style: Making the Speech Pictorial, Vivid, Stirring | |
| |
| |
| Choosing Effective Words | |
| |
| |
| Image-Bearing Words | |
| |
| |
| Personal Pronouns and Other Personal Reference Words | |
| |
| |
| Action Verbs | |
| |
| |
| Simple Words | |
| |
| |
| Utilizing Effective Sentence Structure | |
| |
| |
| Simple Sentences Instead of Complex | |
| |
| |
| Periodic Sentences Instead of Loose | |
| |
| |
| Balanced Structure | |
| |
| |
| Parallel Structure | |
| |
| |
| "Grouping of Three" | |
| |
| |
| Utilizing Special Rhetorical Devices | |
| |
| |
| The Direct Question | |
| |
| |
| The Rhetorical Question | |
| |
| |
| Dialogue | |
| |
| |
| Figures of Speech | |
| |
| |
| Literary and Biblical Quotations | |
| |
| |
| The Allusion | |
| |
| |
| Comparison and Contrast | |
| |
| |
| The Long Illustration-Human Interest Story | |
| |
| |
| Repetition and Restatement | |
| |
| |
| Keeping the Speech Moving Toward a Goal | |
| |
| |
| Partition | |
| |
| |
| Forecast | |
| |
| |
| Summaries | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Suspense and Climax | |
| |
| |
| Ethos: Persuasiveness of the Speaker | |
| |
| |
| The Power of Position and Reputation | |
| |
| |
| The Power of Personality | |
| |
| |
| Sincerity | |
| |
| |
| Congeniality | |
| |
| |
| Consideration and Kindness | |
| |
| |
| Sense of Humor and Proportion | |
| |
| |
| The Power of an Effective Voice | |
| |
| |
| Develop a Basically Pleasing Voice | |
| |
| |
| Develop an Interesting Voice | |
| |
| |
| The Power of Effective Use of the Body | |
| |
| |
| Constant Eye Contact | |
| |
| |
| Using Facial Expression | |
| |
| |
| Using Effective Head Gestures | |
| |
| |
| Using Effective Arm Gestures | |
| |
| |
| Every Gesture Has Three Parts | |
| |
| |
| Developing Good Posture | |
| |
| |
| Move to Enhance the Speech | |
| |
| |
| Enthusiastic Desire to Obtain a Response-Avoid Artificialities | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |