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| Forensic Art: The Foundation | |
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| Introduction to Forensic Art and Illustration | |
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| What Is Forensic Art? | |
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| Four Categories of Forensic Art | |
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| Art or Science? | |
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| Who Is the Forensic Artist? | |
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| References | |
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| A History of Forensic Art | |
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| More Than 100 Years of Aid to Law Enforcement | |
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| The 1800s | |
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| The Early 1900s | |
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| The 1930s | |
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| The 1940s | |
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| The 1950s | |
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| The 1960s | |
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| The 1970s | |
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| The 1980s | |
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| The 1990s | |
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| 2000 and Beyond | |
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| References | |
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| The Human Face | |
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| Facial Anatomy | |
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| Bones of the Skull | |
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| Muscles of the Face | |
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| Three Types of Heads | |
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| Anatomy of the Facial Features | |
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| Basic Orientation Terms | |
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| The Dentition | |
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| Racial/Ancestral Groups and Ethnicity | |
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| Caucasoid | |
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| Negroid | |
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| Mongoloid | |
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| Australian Aboriginals | |
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| Male and Female | |
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| Male | |
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| Female | |
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| Facial Expressions | |
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| References | |
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| Drawing the Human Face | |
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| Tools and Materials | |
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| Papers | |
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| Drawing and Blending Tools | |
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| Other Tools and Supplies | |
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| Tools for Enlargement, Reduction, and Projection | |
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| Enlargement and Reduction | |
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| Projectors | |
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| Tools for Copying with No Size Change | |
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| Light Boxes | |
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| Transfer Paper | |
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| "Style" in Forensic Art | |
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| Degree of Facial Detail | |
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| Scale of the Facial Drawing | |
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| How Long Should It Take? | |
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| Whether or Not to "Neck"! | |
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| The Ideal Face | |
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| Drawing Style | |
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| Color vs. Black-and-White Drawing | |
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| Lighting to Attain Perspective | |
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| Contrived Lighting | |
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| Light Basics | |
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| Facial Proportions | |
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| Proportion in Forensic Art | |
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| Canons of Proportion | |
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| Symmetry/Asymmetry | |
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| Use of Templates | |
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| Importance of the Midface Proportions | |
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| Younger and Older Proportions | |
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| Male and Female Proportions | |
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| Temporary Proportional Changes | |
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| Long-Term Proportional Changes | |
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| How to Capture Proportions in Your Drawings | |
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| Individual Facial Features | |
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| The Eyes | |
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| The Nose | |
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| The Mouth | |
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| The Ears | |
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| Scars, Marks, Tattoos, or Anomalies | |
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| The Profile | |
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| Hair and Other Textures | |
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| Hair | |
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| Facial Hair | |
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| Textures | |
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| Accessories | |
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| Hats and Headgear | |
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| Glasses | |
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| Other Details | |
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| Improving Your Drawing Skills | |
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| Gesture Drawing | |
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| Contour Drawing | |
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| Experiment with Styles and Materials | |
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| References | |
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| Forensic Art: Finding and Identifying the Living | |
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| The Interview | |
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| Functions of Memory and Trauma | |
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| What Is Memory? | |
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| How Does Memory Work? | |
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| Stages of Memory | |
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| Memory and the Composite Artist | |
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| All Faces Are Not Created Equal | |
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| All Witnesses Are Not Created Equal | |
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| Holistic Encoding | |
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| Importance of Specific Features | |
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| Importance of the Upper Face | |
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| Recall vs. Recognition | |
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| What about Hypnosis? | |
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| Obstacles to Perception and Memory | |
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| The Victim/Witness | |
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| Involvement in the Crime | |
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| Stress, Arousal, and Violence | |
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| Personal Fluency of Description | |
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| Perceived Credibility of Members of Certain Professions | |
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| Individual Witness Factors | |
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| The Cognitive Interview vs. the Standard Police Interview | |
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| The Standard Police Interview: "Just the facts, ma'am" | |
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| The Cognitive Interview | |
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| Primary Techniques of the Cognitive Interview | |
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| Review of the Stages of the Cognitive Interview | |
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| The Composite-Specific Interview | |
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| Pre-Interview | |
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| Introduction/Rapport-Building Stage | |
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| Initial Drawing Stage | |
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| Fine-Tuning Drawing Stage | |
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| Finishing Touches | |
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| Concluding the Interview | |
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| Multiple Witness Interviews | |
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| Pre-Interview Assessment | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| Child Interviews | |
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| General Guidelines for Supportive Interviewing of Children | |
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| Developmental Stages as Related to Interviewing | |
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| Language Adaptation | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| Hospital Interviews | |
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| Purpose before Emotion | |
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| Permission from the Physician | |
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| Victim's Attitude | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| False Allegations | |
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| Reasons for False Allegations | |
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| Indicators | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| Other Tools for Assessing Deception | |
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| The Artist's Role | |
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| Other Psychological Issues | |
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| Unconscious Transference | |
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| Multiple Retrieval Attempts | |
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| Better Visualizers May Make Better Witnesses | |
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| Post-Event Inputs | |
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| Training in Facial Recognition | |
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| Psychological Benefits of Composite Images | |
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| References | |
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| Composite Imagery | |
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| Overview of Composite Imagery | |
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| What Is a Composite? | |
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| Object or Evidence Images | |
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| Facial Composite Images in General | |
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| Hand-Assembled Composite Systems | |
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| Computer-Generated Composite Systems | |
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| Three-Dimensional Composites | |
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| Other Terminology | |
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| Circumstances for Doing Composite Images | |
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| Initial Contact and Request | |
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| Saying "No" | |
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| Practical Considerations | |
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| Physical Structure of the Interview | |
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| Time of the Interview | |
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| Victim Considerations | |
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| Put Yourself in the Interviewee's Situation | |
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| Physical Considerations | |
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| Emotional Considerations | |
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| Others Allowed into the Interview | |
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| Psychological Considerations | |
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| Physiological Indicators of Stress | |
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| Sociological Considerations | |
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| Individual Victim/Witness Variants | |
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| Reference Files | |
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| Why Use Reference Photographs? | |
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| Recall vs. Recognition | |
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| Correct Use of Photographic References | |
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| FBI Facial Identification Catalog | |
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| Mug Shots | |
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| Other Reference Sources | |
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| Useful Objects to Have on Hand | |
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| Other Uses for the Photo Reference Files | |
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| The Composite Drawing | |
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| Time Frame for Drawing | |
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| Procedure for Composite Drawing | |
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| Initial Drawing Stage: Establishing the Face | |
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| Fine-Tuning Drawing Stage: Refinement of the Face | |
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| Finishing Touches | |
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| Alternate Looks | |
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| Use of a 1 to 10 Evaluation System | |
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| Distribution of Composite Images | |
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| References | |
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| Age Progression: Growth | |
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| Overview of Child Age Progression | |
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| Circumstances for Doing Child Age Progression | |
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| Parental Abduction | |
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| Stranger Abduction | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| General Approach | |
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| Hand-Drawn or Computer-Generated Methods | |
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| A "Look" throughout Life | |
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| Information Gathering | |
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| Craniofacial Growth | |
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| General Trends | |
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| Denition | |
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| Photographic Series | |
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| Child Facial Update: Case Example | |
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| References | |
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| Age Progression: Aging | |
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| Overview of Adult Age Progression | |
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| Circumstances for Doing Adult Age Progression | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| Hand-Drawn or Computer-Generated Methods | |
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| A "Look" throughout Life | |
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| Facial Angle | |
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| Color or Black and White | |
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| Information Gathering | |
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| Materials | |
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| Multiple Views | |
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| Facial Aging | |
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| Nomenclature for Facial Lines | |
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| Changes by Decade | |
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| General Facial Aging | |
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| Fugitives and Adult Facial Update Examples | |
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| Case Studies | |
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| Complications | |
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| References | |
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| Image Assessment and Modification | |
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| The Forensic Artist as a "Facial Identification Specialist" | |
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| What Approach Should Be Used? | |
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| Photo-to-Photo Comparisons | |
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| Photos | |
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| Considerations for Evaluation and Comparison | |
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| Special Techniques for Comparison | |
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| Scaling Techniques | |
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| Making Comparison Photographs | |
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| Facial Changes Other Than Age | |
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| Intentional Alteration of Appearance | |
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| Naturally Occurring Changes in Appearance | |
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| References | |
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| Forensic Art: Identifying the Dead | |
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| Postmortem Drawing | |
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| Circumstances for Doing Postmortem Drawing | |
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| Cases in Which Postmortem Drawing Is Used | |
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| Cases in Which Postmortem Drawing Is Generally Not Used | |
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| When to Say "No" | |
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| Postmortem Changes | |
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| Basic Terminology | |
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| Postmortem Stages | |
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| Rigor Mortis | |
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| Livor Mortis | |
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| Algor Mortis | |
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| Decomposition | |
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| Insects and Animals | |
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| Effects on the Face | |
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| Reanimating the Face | |
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| Bloating | |
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| Slack Jaw | |
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| Palpebral Changes | |
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| Facial Trauma | |
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| Slight | |
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| Moderate | |
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| Extensive | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| Quality of Photography | |
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| Facial Angle | |
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| The Dentition | |
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| Color or Black and White | |
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| Using Other Available Details | |
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| Complications | |
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| References | |
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| Skull Protection and Preparation for Reconstruction | |
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| The Skull as Evidence | |
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| Skull Protection | |
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| Gluing the Mandible to the Cranium | |
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| General Dental Assessment | |
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| Correct Positioning | |
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| Incomplete Skulls | |
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| Anthropological and Other Scientific Evaluations | |
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| Anatomical Method or Tissue Depth Method | |
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| Anatomical Method | |
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| Tissue Depth Method | |
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| Combination Method | |
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| Discussion of Methods | |
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| Frankfort Horizontal Plane | |
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| Tissue Depths | |
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| Tissue Depth Tables | |
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| Landmarks for Location of Tissue Depth Markers | |
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| Cutting and Placement of Tissue Depth Markers | |
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| References | |
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| Two-Dimensional Facial Reconstruction from the Skull | |
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| Background of the Method | |
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| The Skull | |
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| Historical Review of Two-Dimensional Facial Reconstruction | |
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| Circumstances for Doing Two-Dimensional Facial Reconstruction | |
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| Tools and Materials | |
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| Technical Phase | |
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| Tissue Depth Markers | |
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| The Frankfort Horizontal Plane for Skull Photography | |
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| Drawing Board Setup | |
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| Artistic Phase | |
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| Drawing the Facial Contours | |
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| Drawing the Eyes | |
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| Drawing the Eyebrows | |
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| Drawing the Nose | |
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| Drawing the Mouth | |
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| Drawing the Ears | |
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| Drawing the Hair | |
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| Drawing the Neck | |
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| Other Details | |
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| Copying for Distribution | |
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| Case Examples | |
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| References | |
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| Three-Dimensional Facial Reconstruction on the Skull | |
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| Background of the Method (by BPG) | |
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| Circumstances for Doing Three-Dimensional Facial Reconstruction | |
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| Tools and Materials | |
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| Technical Phase | |
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| Adjustable Skull Stand | |
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| The Frankfort Horizontal Plane | |
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| Tissue Depth Markers | |
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| Setting the Prosthetic Eye | |
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| Connecting Tissue Depth Markers | |
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| Artistic Phase | |
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| Development of the Mouth | |
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| Development of the Eyes | |
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| Development of the Nose | |
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| Development of the Cheeks | |
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| Development of the Ears | |
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| The Neck | |
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| Texturing and Finishing Details | |
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| Method of Photographing the Sculpture | |
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| Case Examples | |
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| Early Cases | |
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| Other Case Examples | |
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| Museum and Other Applications | |
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| Mummies | |
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| King Tutankhamen | |
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| Anniston, Alabama Museum Project | |
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| Early Americans | |
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| Galveston Island Aboriginal Female | |
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| Leanderthal Lady | |
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| Soldiers from the Custer Battlefield | |
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| Miles O'Hara--Little Big Horn | |
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| Sgt. Edward Batzer--Little Big Horn | |
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| Other Projects | |
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| Pizarro Project | |
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| Colonial Williamsburg Project | |
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| President Kennedy Assassination Project | |
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| Special Project for the FBI | |
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| References | |
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| Methods of Superimposition | |
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| Background of Superimposition Comparisons | |
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| Procedural Considerations | |
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| Orientation | |
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| Scale | |
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| A Model of Video Superimposition | |
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| Protocol for Developing Superimposition Videotapes | |
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| Methodology for Analysis of Superimposition Videotapes | |
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| Additional Issues | |
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| Difficult Orientations | |
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| Incomplete Skulls | |
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| Ambiguous Indicators of Ancestry or Sex | |
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| Multiple Views | |
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| Case Studies | |
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| Exclusionary Case Study | |
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| Matching Case Study | |
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| Discussion | |
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| References | |
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| Forensic Art: Additional Responsibilities | |
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| Professional Ethics and Conduct | |
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| Codes of Ethics and Conduct | |
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| Representation of Credentials and Capabilities | |
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| Professional Organizations | |
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| Certification | |
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| Education and Experience | |
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| Statement of Capabilities | |
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| Dealings with Other Artists | |
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| Redoing Composite Drawings | |
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| Redoing Other Types of Forensic Art | |
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| Conduct with Victims and Witnesses | |
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| Witnesses | |
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| Victims | |
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| Family Members | |
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| Questionable Witnesses | |
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| Conduct with Police | |
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| Release of Information | |
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| Questionable Methods | |
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| Insufficient Information | |
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| Frontal View vs. Profile | |
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| Inappropriate Requests | |
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| Forensic Art Language | |
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| References | |
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| Printing and Graphics Reproduction | |
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| General Information | |
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| History of Printing | |
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| Typography | |
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| Images | |
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| Photography | |
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| Digital Imaging | |
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| Acquiring and Printing Images | |
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| Evidentiary Documentation | |
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| Methods of Distribution | |
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| Print Media | |
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| Billboards | |
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| Television | |
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| Electronic | |
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| Primary Considerations for the Artist | |
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| Contrast | |
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| Definition of Form | |
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| References | |
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| Dealing with the News Media | |
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| General Information | |
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| The Role of the News Media | |
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| The Role of Law Enforcement | |
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| The Artist's Role | |
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| Releasing Forensic Art to the News Media | |
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| Making Comments to the News Media | |
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| Personal Stories | |
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| Practical Matters | |
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| References | |
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| The Forensic Artist in Court | |
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| Record Keeping | |
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| Case Records | |
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| Evidence Handling | |
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| The Composite Drawing as Evidence | |
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| Other Types of Evidence | |
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| Expert Testimony | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Preparation for Testimony | |
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| Courtroom Demeanor | |
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| Primary Issues for the Forensic Artist | |
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| Court Presentation Artwork | |
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| Forensic Art Case Law | |
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| Hearsay Rule Exceptions | |
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| Standards for Admitting a Composite | |
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| Quality and Availability of the Original Composite | |
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| Multiple Witnesses | |
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| Other Related Case Law | |
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| Probable Cause to Stop and Identify | |
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| To Aid the Defendant | |
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| Right of the Accused to the Production of a Composite Drawing | |
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| Hypnosis | |
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| References | |
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| Summary | |
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| Index | |