Measurement and Instrumentation Principles

Name: Measurement and Instrumentation Principles
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ISBN: 9780750650816

ISBN-10: 0750650818

ISBN-13: 9780750650816

Edition: 3rd 2001 (Revised)

Authors: Alan S. Morris

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This work aims to introduce undergraduate students to the measurement principles and the range of sensors and instruments that are used for measuring physical variables.

Book details

List price: $60.95
Edition: 3rd
Copyright year: 2001
Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
Publication date: 3/27/2001
Binding: Paperback
Pages: 512
Size: 6.75" wide x 9.50" long x 1.00" tall
Weight: 1.892
Language: English

Dr. Morris is senior lecturer in the Department of Automatic Control & Systems Engineering at the University of Sheffield. He has taught the undergraduate course in measurement and instrumentation for nearly 30 years, as well as undergraduate courses in robot technology, engineering design and laboratory skills, and graduate level courses in robot control, modeling and measurement for quality assurance. He is the author of eight books and more than 130 research papers in the fields of measurement and instrumentation and robot control.

Preface	p. xvii
Acknowledgements	p. xx
Principles of Measurement	p. 1
Introduction to Measurement	p. 3
Measurement units	p. 3
Measurement system applications	p. 6
Elements of a measurement system	p. 8
Choosing appropriate measuring instruments	p. 9
Instrument Types and Performance Characteristics	p. 12
Review of instrument types	p. 12
Active and passive instruments	p. 12
Null-type and deflection-type instruments	p. 13
Analogue and digital instruments	p. 14
Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output	p. 15
Smart and non-smart instruments	p. 16
Static characteristics of instruments	p. 16
Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)	p. 16
Precision/repeatability/reproducibility	p. 17
Tolerance	p. 17
Range or span	p. 18
Linearity	p. 19
Sensitivity of measurement	p. 19
Threshold	p. 20
Resolution	p. 20
Sensitivity to disturbance	p. 20
Hysteresis effects	p. 22
Dead space	p. 23
Dynamic characteristics of instruments	p. 23
Zero order instrument	p. 25
First order instrument	p. 25
Second order instrument	p. 28
Necessity for calibration	p. 29
Self-test questions	p. 30
Errors During the Measurement Process	p. 32
Introduction	p. 32
Sources of systematic error	p. 33
System disturbance due to measurement	p. 33
Errors due to environmental inputs	p. 37
Wear in instrument components	p. 38
Connecting leads	p. 38
Reduction of systematic errors	p. 39
Careful instrument design	p. 39
Method of opposing inputs	p. 39
High-gain feedback	p. 39
Calibration	p. 41
Manual correction of output reading	p. 42
Intelligent instruments	p. 42
Quantification of systematic errors	p. 42
Random errors	p. 42
Statistical analysis of measurements subject to random errors	p. 43
Graphical data analysis techniques--frequency distributions	p. 46
Aggregation of measurement system errors	p. 56
Combined effect of systematic and random errors	p. 56
Aggregation of errors from separate measurement system components	p. 56
Total error when combining multiple measurements	p. 59
Self-test questions	p. 60
References and further reading	p. 63
Calibration of Measuring Sensors and Instruments	p. 64
Principles of calibration	p. 64
Control of calibration environment	p. 66
Calibration chain and traceability	p. 67
Calibration records	p. 71
References and further reading	p. 72
Measurement Noise and Signal Processing	p. 73
Sources of measurement noise	p. 73
Inductive coupling	p. 74
Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling	p. 74
Noise due to multiple earths	p. 74
Noise in the form of voltage transients	p. 75
Thermoelectric potentials	p. 75
Shot noise	p. 76
Electrochemical potentials	p. 76
Techniques for reducing measurement noise	p. 76
Location and design of signal wires	p. 76
Earthing	p. 77
Shielding	p. 77
Other techniques	p. 77
Introduction to signal processing	p. 78
Analogue signal filtering	p. 78
Passive analogue filters	p. 81
Active analogue filters	p. 85
Other analogue signal processing operations	p. 86
Signal amplification	p. 87
Signal attenuation	p. 88
Differential amplification	p. 89
Signal linearization	p. 90
Bias (zero drift) removal	p. 91
Signal integration	p. 92
Voltage follower (pre-amplifier)	p. 92
Voltage comparator	p. 92
Phase-sensitive detector	p. 93
Lock-in amplifier	p. 94
Signal addition	p. 94
Signal multiplication	p. 95
Digital signal processing	p. 95
Signal sampling	p. 95
Sample and hold circuit	p. 97
Analogue-to-digital converters	p. 97
Digital-to-analogue (D/A) conversion	p. 99
Digital filtering	p. 100
Autocorrelation	p. 100
Other digital signal processing operations	p. 101
References and further reading	p. 101
Electrical Indicating and Test Instruments	p. 102
Digital meters	p. 102
Voltage-to-time conversion digital voltmeter	p. 103
Potentiometric digital voltmeter	p. 103
Dual-slope integration digital voltmeter	p. 103
Voltage-to-frequency conversion digital voltmeter	p. 104
Digital multimeter	p. 104
Analogue meters	p. 104
Moving-coil meters	p. 105
Moving-iron meter	p. 106
Electrodynamic meters	p. 107
Clamp-on meters	p. 108
Analogue multimeter	p. 108
Measuring high-frequency signals	p. 109
Thermocouple meter	p. 110
Electronic analogue voltmeters	p. 111
Calculation of meter outputs for non-standard waveforms	p. 112
Cathode ray oscilloscope	p. 114
Cathode ray tube	p. 115
Channel	p. 116
Single-ended input	p. 117
Differential input	p. 117
Timebase circuit	p. 117
Vertical sensitivity control	p. 117
Display position control	p. 118
Digital storage oscilloscopes	p. 118
References and further reading	p. 118
Variable Conversion Elements	p. 119
Bridge circuits	p. 119
Null-type, d.c. bridge (Wheatstone bridge)	p. 120
Deflection-type d.c. bridge	p. 121
Error analysis	p. 128
A.c. bridges	p. 130
Resistance measurement	p. 134
D.c. bridge circuit	p. 135
Voltmeter-ammeter method	p. 135
Resistance-substitution method	p. 135
Use of the digital voltmeter to measure resistance	p. 136
The ohmmeter	p. 136
Codes for resistor values	p. 137
Inductance measurement	p. 138
Capacitance measurement	p. 138
Alphanumeric codes for capacitor values	p. 139
Current measurement	p. 140
Frequency measurement	p. 141
Digital counter-timers	p. 142
Phase-locked loop	p. 142
Cathode ray oscilloscope	p. 143
The Wien bridge	p. 144
Phase measurement	p. 145
Electronic counter-timer	p. 145
X-Y plotter	p. 145
Oscilloscope	p. 147
Phase-sensitive detector	p. 147
Self-test questions	p. 147
References and further reading	p. 150
Signal Transmission	p. 151
Electrical transmission	p. 151
Transmission as varying voltages	p. 151
Current loop transmission	p. 152
Transmission using an a.c. carrier	p. 153
Pneumatic transmission	p. 154
Fibre-optic transmission	p. 155
Principles of fibre optics	p. 156
Transmission characteristics	p. 158
Multiplexing schemes	p. 160
Optical wireless telemetry	p. 160
Radio telemetry (radio wireless transmission)	p. 161
Digital transmission protocols	p. 163
References and further reading	p. 164
Digital Computation and Intelligent Devices	p. 165
Principles of digital computation	p. 165
Elements of a computer	p. 165
Computer operation	p. 168
Interfacing	p. 174
Practical considerations in adding computers to measurement systems	p. 176
Intelligent devices	p. 177
Intelligent instruments	p. 177
Smart sensors	p. 179
Smart transmitters	p. 180
Communication with intelligent devices	p. 183
Computation in intelligent devices	p. 184
Future trends in intelligent devices	p. 185
Self-test questions	p. 185
References and further reading	p. 186
Instrumentation/Computer Networks	p. 187
Introduction	p. 187
Serial communication lines	p. 188
Asynchronous transmission	p. 189
Parallel data bus	p. 190
Local area networks (LANs)	p. 192
Star networks	p. 193
Ring and bus networks	p. 194
Gateways	p. 195
HART	p. 195
Digital fieldbuses	p. 196
Communication protocols for very large systems	p. 198
Protocol standardization	p. 198
Future development of networks	p. 199
References and further reading	p. 199
Display, Recording and Presentation of Measurement Data	p. 200
Display of measurement signals	p. 200
Electronic output displays	p. 200
Computer monitor displays	p. 201
Recording of measurement data	p. 202
Mechanical chart recorders	p. 202
Ultra-violet recorders	p. 208
Fibre-optic recorders (recording oscilloscopes)	p. 209
Hybrid chart recorders	p. 209
Magnetic tape recorders	p. 209
Digital recorders	p. 210
Storage oscilloscopes	p. 211
Presentation of data	p. 212
Tabular data presentation	p. 212
Graphical presentation of data	p. 213
Self-test questions	p. 222
References and further reading	p. 223
Measurement Reliability and Safety Systems	p. 224
Reliability	p. 224
Principles of reliability	p. 224
Laws of reliability in complex systems	p. 228
Improving measurement system reliability	p. 229
Software reliability	p. 232
Safety systems	p. 236
Introduction to safety systems	p. 236
Operation of safety systems	p. 237
Design of a safety system	p. 238
Self-test questions	p. 241
References and further reading	p. 242
Measurement Sensors and Instruments	p. 245
Sensor Technologies	p. 247
Capacitive and resistive sensors	p. 247
Magnetic sensors	p. 247
Hall-effect sensors	p. 249
Piezoelectric transducers	p. 250
Strain gauges	p. 251
Piezoresistive sensors	p. 252
Optical sensors (air path)	p. 252
Optical sensors (fibre-optic)	p. 253
Intrinsic sensors	p. 254
Extrinsic sensors	p. 258
Distributed sensors	p. 259
Ultrasonic transducers	p. 259
Transmission speed	p. 260
Direction of travel of ultrasound waves	p. 261
Directionality of ultrasound waves	p. 261
Relationship between wavelength, frequency and directionality of ultrasound waves	p. 262
Attenuation of ultrasound waves	p. 262
Ultrasound as a range sensor	p. 263
Use of ultrasound in tracking 3D object motion	p. 264
Effect of noise in ultrasonic measurement systems	p. 265
Exploiting Doppler shift in ultrasound transmission	p. 265
Ultrasonic imaging	p. 267
Nuclear sensors	p. 267
Microsensors	p. 268
References and further reading	p. 270
Temperature Measurement	p. 271
Principles of temperature measurement	p. 271
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)	p. 272
Thermocouple tables	p. 276
Non-zero reference junction temperature	p. 277
Thermocouple types	p. 279
Thermocouple protection	p. 280
Thermocouple manufacture	p. 281
The thermopile	p. 282
Digital thermometer	p. 282
The continuous thermocouple	p. 282
Varying resistance devices	p. 283
Resistance thermometers (resistance temperature devices)	p. 284
Thermistors	p. 285
Semiconductor devices	p. 286
Radiation thermometers	p. 287
Optical pyrometers	p. 289
Radiation pyrometers	p. 290
Thermography (thermal imaging)	p. 293
Thermal expansion methods	p. 294
Liquid-in-glass thermometers	p. 295
Bimetallic thermometer	p. 296
Pressure thermometers	p. 296
Quartz thermometers	p. 297
Fibre-optic temperature sensors	p. 297
Acoustic thermometers	p. 298
Colour indicators	p. 299
Change of state of materials	p. 299
Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments	p. 300
Choice between temperature transducers	p. 300
Self-test questions	p. 302
References and further reading	p. 303
Pressure Measurement	p. 304
Diaphragms	p. 305
Capacitive pressure sensor	p. 306
Fibre-optic pressure sensors	p. 306
Bellows	p. 307
Bourdon tube	p. 308
Manometers	p. 310
Resonant-wire devices	p. 311
Dead-weight gauge	p. 312
Special measurement devices for low pressures	p. 312
High-pressure measurement (greater than 7000 bar)	p. 315
Intelligent pressure transducers	p. 316
Selection of pressure sensors	p. 316
Flow Measurement	p. 319
Mass flow rate	p. 319
Conveyor-based methods	p. 319
Coriolis flowmeter	p. 320
Thermal mass flow measurement	p. 320
Joint measurement of volume flow rate and fluid density	p. 321
Volume flow rate	p. 321
Differential pressure (obstruction-type) meters	p. 322
Variable area flowmeters (Rotameters)	p. 327
Positive displacement flowmeters	p. 328
Turbine meters	p. 329
Electromagnetic flowmeters	p. 330
Vortex-shedding flowmeters	p. 332
Ultrasonic flowmeters	p. 332
Other types of flowmeter for measuring volume flow rate	p. 336
Intelligent flowmeters	p. 338
Choice between flowmeters for particular applications	p. 338
References and further reading	p. 339
Level Measurement	p. 340
Dipsticks	p. 340
Float systems	p. 340
Pressure-measuring devices (hydrostatic systems)	p. 341
Capacitive devices	p. 343
Ultrasonic level gauge	p. 344
Radar (microwave) methods	p. 346
Radiation methods	p. 346
Other techniques	p. 348
Vibrating level sensor	p. 348
Hot-wire elements/carbon resistor elements	p. 348
Laser methods	p. 349
Fibre-optic level sensors	p. 349
Thermography	p. 349
Intelligent level-measuring instruments	p. 351
Choice between different level sensors	p. 351
References and further reading	p. 351
Mass, Force and Torque Measurement	p. 352
Mass (weight) measurement	p. 352
Electronic load cell (electronic balance)	p. 352
Pneumatic/hydraulic load cells	p. 354
Intelligent load cells	p. 355
Mass-balance (weighing) instruments	p. 356
Spring balance	p. 359
Force measurement	p. 359
Use of accelerometers	p. 360
Vibrating wire sensor	p. 360
Torque measurement	p. 361
Reaction forces in shaft bearings	p. 361
Prony brake	p. 361
Measurement of induced strain	p. 362
Optical torque measurement	p. 364
Translational Motion Transducers	p. 365
Displacement	p. 365
The resistive potentiometer	p. 365
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)	p. 368
Variable capacitance transducers	p. 370
Variable inductance transducers	p. 371
Strain gauges	p. 371
Piezoelectric transducers	p. 373
Nozzle flapper	p. 373
Other methods of measuring small displacements	p. 374
Measurement of large displacements (range sensors)	p. 378
Proximity sensors	p. 381
Selection of translational measurement transducers	p. 382
Velocity	p. 382
Differentiation of displacement measurements	p. 382
Integration of the output of an accelerometer	p. 383
Conversion to rotational velocity	p. 383
Acceleration	p. 383
Selection of accelerometers	p. 385
Vibration	p. 386
Nature of vibration	p. 386
Vibration measurement	p. 386
Shock	p. 388
Rotational Motion Transducers	p. 390
Rotational displacement	p. 390
Circular and helical potentiometers	p. 390
Rotational differential transformer	p. 391
Incremental shaft encoders	p. 392
Coded-disc shaft encoders	p. 394
The resolver	p. 398
The synchro	p. 399
The induction potentiometer	p. 402
The rotary inductosyn	p. 402
Gyroscopes	p. 402
Choice between rotational displacement transducers	p. 406
Rotational velocity	p. 407
Digital tachometers	p. 407
Stroboscopic methods	p. 410
Analogue tachometers	p. 411
Mechanical flyball	p. 413
The rate gyroscope	p. 415
Fibre-optic gyroscope	p. 416
Differentiation of angular displacement measurements	p. 417
Integration of the output from an accelerometer	p. 417
Choice between rotational velocity transducers	p. 417
Measurement of rotational acceleration	p. 417
References and further reading	p. 418
Summary of Other Measurements	p. 419
Dimension measurement	p. 419
Rules and tapes	p. 419
Callipers	p. 421
Micrometers	p. 422
Gauge blocks (slip gauges) and length bars	p. 423
Height and depth measurement	p. 425
Angle measurement	p. 426
Flatness measurement	p. 428
Volume measurement	p. 428
Viscosity measurement	p. 429
Capillary and tube viscometers	p. 430
Falling body viscometer	p. 431
Rotational viscometers	p. 431
Moisture measurement	p. 432
Industrial moisture measurement techniques	p. 432
Laboratory techniques for moisture measurement	p. 434
Humidity measurement	p. 435
Sound measurement	p. 436
pH measurement	p. 437
The glass electrode	p. 438
Other methods of pH measurement	p. 439
Gas sensing and analysis	p. 439
Catalytic (calorimetric) sensors	p. 440
Paper tape sensors	p. 441
Liquid electrolyte electrochemical cells	p. 441
Solid-state electrochemical cells (zirconia sensor)	p. 442
Catalytic gate FETs	p. 442
Semiconductor (metal oxide) sensors	p. 442
Organic sensors	p. 442
Piezoelectric devices	p. 443
Infra-red absorption	p. 443
Mass spectrometers	p. 443
Gas chromatography	p. 443
References and further reading	p. 444
Imperial--metric--SI conversion tables	p. 445
Thevenin's theorem	p. 452
Thermocouple tables	p. 458
Solutions to self-test questions	p. 464
Index	p. 469
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