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| Preface | |
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| Thinking Like a Scientist | |
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| Science and Psychology | |
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| Areas of Psychological Research | |
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| Psychobiology | |
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| Cognition | |
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| Human Development | |
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| Social Psychology | |
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| Psychotherapy | |
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| Sources of Knowledge | |
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| Superstition and Intuition | |
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| Authority | |
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| Tenacity | |
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| Rationalism | |
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| Empiricism | |
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| Science | |
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| The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology | |
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| Systematic Empiricism | |
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| Public Verification | |
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| Solvable Problems | |
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| Goals of Science | |
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| Description | |
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| Prediction | |
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| Explanation | |
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| Basic and Applied Research | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| An Introduction to Research Methods | |
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| Descriptive Methods | |
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| Predictive (Relational) Methods | |
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| Explanatory Method | |
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| Doing Science | |
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| Proof and Disproof | |
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| The Research Process | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| Getting Started | |
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| Research Ideas | |
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| Reviewing the Literature | |
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| Library Research | |
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| Journals | |
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| Psychological Abstracts | |
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| PsycINFO and PsycLIT | |
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| Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index | |
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| Other Resources | |
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| Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect | |
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| Abstract | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Method | |
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| Results | |
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| Discussion | |
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| Summary | |
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| Module Exercise | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Ethical Research | |
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| Ethical Standards in Research with Human Participants | |
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| Institutional Review Boards | |
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| Informed Consent | |
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| Risk | |
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| Deception | |
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| Debriefing | |
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| Ethical Standards in Research with Children | |
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| Ethical Standards in Research with Animals | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables | |
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| Defining Variables | |
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| The Properties of Measurement | |
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| Identity | |
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| Magnitude | |
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| Equal Unit Size | |
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| Absolute Zero | |
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| The Scales of Measurement | |
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| Nominal Scale | |
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| Ordinal Scale | |
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| Interval Scale | |
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| Ratio Scale | |
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| Discrete and Continuous Variables | |
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| Types of Measures | |
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| Self-Report Measures | |
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| Tests | |
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| Behavioral Measures | |
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| Physical Measures | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Reliability and Validity | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Error in Measurement | |
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| How to Measure Reliability: Correlation Coefficients | |
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| Types of Reliability | |
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| Test/Retest Reliability | |
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| Alternate-Forms Reliability | |
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| Split-Half Reliability | |
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| Interrater Reliability | |
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| Validity | |
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| Content Validity | |
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| Criterion Validity | |
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| Construct Validity | |
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| The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| Descriptive Methods | |
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| Observational and Other Descriptive Methods | |
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| Naturalistic Observation | |
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| Options When Using Observation | |
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| Laboratory Observation | |
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| Data Collection | |
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| Narrative Records | |
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| Checklists | |
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| Case Study Method | |
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| Archival Method | |
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| Qualitative Methods | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Survey Methods | |
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| Survey Construction | |
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| Writing the Questions | |
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| Arranging the Questions | |
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| Administering Surveys | |
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| Mail Surveys | |
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| Telephone Surveys | |
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| Personal Interviews | |
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| Sampling Techniques | |
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| Probability Sampling | |
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| Nonprobability Sampling | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| Predictive (Relational) Methods | |
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| Conducting Correlational Research | |
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| Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships | |
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| Magnitude | |
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| Scatterplots | |
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| Positive Relationships | |
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| Negative Relationships | |
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| No Relationship | |
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| Curvilinear Relationships | |
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| Misinterpreting Correlations | |
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| The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality | |
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| The Third-Variable Problem | |
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| Restrictive Range | |
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| Curvilinear Relationships | |
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| Prediction and Correlation | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Nonmanipulated Independent Variables | |
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| An Example: Snow and Cholera | |
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| Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Single-Group Posttest-Only Design | |
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| Single-Group Pretest/Posttest Design | |
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| Single-Group Time-Series Design | |
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| Nonequivalent Control Group Posttest-Only Design | |
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| Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest/Posttest Design | |
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| Multiple-Group Time-Series Design | |
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| Internal Validity and Confounds in Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Conducting Single-Case Research | |
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| Types of Single-Case Designs | |
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| Reversal Designs | |
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| ABA Reversal Designs | |
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| ABAB Reversal Designs | |
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| Multiple-Baseline Designs | |
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| Multiple Baselines Across Participants | |
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| Multiple Baselines Across Behaviors | |
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| Multiple Baselines Across Situations | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| Explanatory Methods | |
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| Between-Participants Experimental Designs | |
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| Control and Confounds | |
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| Threats to Internal Validity | |
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| Nonequivalent Control Group | |
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| History | |
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| Maturation | |
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| Testing | |
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| Regression to the Mean | |
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| Instrumentation | |
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| Mortality or Attrition | |
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| Diffusion of Treatment | |
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| Experimenter and Participant Effects | |
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| Floor and Ceiling Effects | |
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| Threats to External Validity | |
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| Generalization to Populations | |
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| Generalization from Laboratory Settings | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Correlated-Groups and Developmental Designs | |
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| Within-Participants Experimental Designs | |
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| Matched-Participants Experimental Designs | |
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| Developmental Designs | |
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| Cross-Sectional Designs | |
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| Longitudinal Designs | |
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| Sequential Designs | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Advanced Experimental Designs | |
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| Using Designs with More Than Two Levels of an Independent Variable | |
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| Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study | |
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| Comparing Two or More Kinds of Treatment with the Control Group (No Treatment) | |
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| Comparing a Placebo Group with the Control and Experimental Groups | |
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| Using Designs with More Than One Independent Variable | |
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| Factorial Notation and Factorial Designs | |
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| Main Effects and Interaction Effects | |
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| Possible Outcomes of a 2 X 2 Factorial Design | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| Statistical Concepts | |
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| Data Organization and Descriptive Statistics I | |
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| Organizing Data | |
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| Frequency Distributions | |
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| Graphs | |
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| Bar Graphs and Histograms | |
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| Frequency Polygons | |
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| Descriptive Statistics | |
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| Measures of Central Tendency | |
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| Mean | |
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| Median | |
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| Mode | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Statistical Software Resources | |
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| Descriptive Statistics II | |
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| Measures of Variation | |
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| Range | |
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| Standard Deviation | |
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| Types of Distributions | |
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| Normal Distributions | |
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| Kurtosis | |
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| Positively Skewed Distributions | |
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| Negatively Skewed Distributions | |
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| z-Scores | |
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| z-Scores, the Standard Normal Distribution, Probability, and Percentile Ranks | |
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| Correlation Coefficients | |
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| Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Statistical Software Resources | |
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| Inferential Statistics I-Hypothesis Testing | |
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| Null and Alternative Hypotheses | |
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| One- and Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests | |
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| Type I and Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing | |
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| Statistical Significance and Errors | |
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| Parametric Statistics for Two-Group Designs | |
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| t Test for Independent Groups (Samples): What It Is and What It Does | |
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| Calculations for the Independent-Groups t Test | |
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| Interpreting the t Test | |
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| Graphing the Means | |
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| Effect Size: Cohen's d | |
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| Assumptions of the Independent-Groups t Test | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Statistical Software Resources | |
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| Inferential Statistics II | |
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| Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study | |
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| Analyzing the Multiple-Group Experiment | |
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| Between-Participants Designs: One-Way Randomized ANOVA | |
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| One-Way Randomized ANOVA: What It Is and What It Does | |
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| Calculations for the One-Way Randomized ANOVA | |
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| Interpreting the One-Way Randomized ANOVA | |
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| Graphing the Means and Effect Size | |
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| Assumptions of the One-Way Randomized ANOVA | |
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| Tukey's Post Hoc Test | |
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| One-Way Repeated Measure and Two-Way ANOVAs | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review of Key Terms | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Lab Resources | |
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| Statistical Software Resources | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| APA Communications Guidelines | |
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| Communicating Research Findings | |
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| Writing Clearly | |
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| Avoiding Grammatical Problems | |
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| Reporting Numbers | |
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| Citing and Referencing | |
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| Citation Style: One Author | |
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| Citation Style: Multiple Authors | |
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| Reference Style | |
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| Typing and Word Processing | |
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| Organizing the Paper | |
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| Title Page | |
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| Abstract | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Method | |
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| Results | |
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| Discussion | |
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| References | |
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| Appendixes and Author Note | |
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| Tables and Figures | |
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| The Use of Headings | |
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| APA Formatting Checklist | |
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| Conference Presentations | |
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| Oral Paper Presentations | |
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| Poster Presentations | |
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| Summary | |
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| Module Exercises | |
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| Critical Thinking Check Answers | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| APA Sample Manuscript | |
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| Summary and Review | |
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| Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises | |
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| Statistical Tables | |
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| References | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Index | |