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| Preface | |
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| List of abbreviations | |
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| A guide to the book | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The vision of Ambient Intelligence | |
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| Application examples | |
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| Types of applications | |
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| Challenges for WSNs | |
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| Characteristic requirements | |
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| Required mechanisms | |
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| Why are sensor networks different? | |
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| Mobile ad hoc networks and wireless sensor networks | |
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| Fieldbuses and wireless sensor networks | |
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| Enabling technologies for wireless sensor networks | |
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| Architectures | |
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| Single-node architecture | |
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| Hardware components | |
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| Sensor node hardware overview | |
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| Controller | |
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| Memory | |
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| Communication device | |
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| Sensors and actuators | |
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| Power supply of sensor nodes | |
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| Energy consumption of sensor nodes | |
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| Operation states with different power consumption | |
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| Microcontroller energy consumption | |
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| Memory | |
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| Radio transceivers | |
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| Relationship between computation and communication | |
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| Power consumption of sensor and actuators | |
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| Operating systems and execution environments | |
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| Embedded operating systems | |
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| Programming paradigms and application programming interfaces | |
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| Structure of operating system and protocol stack | |
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| Dynamic energy and power management | |
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| Case Study: TinyOS and nesC | |
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| Other examples | |
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| Some examples of sensor nodes | |
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| The "Mica Mote" family | |
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| EYES nodes | |
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| BTnodes | |
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| Scatterweb | |
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| Commercial solutions | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Network architecture | |
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| Sensor network scenarios | |
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| Types of sources and sinks | |
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| Single-hop versus multihop networks | |
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| Multiple sinks and sources | |
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| Three types of mobility | |
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| Optimization goals and figures of merit | |
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| Quality of service | |
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| Energy efficiency | |
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| Scalability | |
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| Robustness | |
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| Design principles for WSNs | |
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| Distributed organization | |
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| In-network processing | |
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| Adaptive fidelity and accuracy | |
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| Data centricity | |
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| Exploit location information | |
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| Exploit activity patterns | |
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| Exploit heterogeneity | |
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| Component-based protocol stacks and cross-layer optimization | |
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| Service interfaces of WSNs | |
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| Structuring application/protocol stack interfaces | |
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| Expressibility requirements for WSN service interfaces | |
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| Discussion | |
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| Gateway concepts | |
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| The need for gateways | |
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| WSN to Internet communication | |
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| Internet to WSN communication | |
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| WSN tunneling | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Communication Protocols | |
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| Physical layer | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Wireless channel and communication fundamentals | |
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| Frequency allocation | |
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| Modulation and demodulation | |
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| Wave propagation effects and noise | |
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| Channel models | |
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| Spread-spectrum communications | |
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| Packet transmission and synchronization | |
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| Quality of wireless channels and measures for improvement | |
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| Physical layer and transceiver design considerations in WSNs | |
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| Energy usage profile | |
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| Choice of modulation scheme | |
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| Dynamic modulation scaling | |
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| Antenna considerations | |
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| Further reading | |
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| MAC protocols | |
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| Fundamentals of (wireless) MAC protocols | |
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| Requirements and design constraints for wireless MAC protocols | |
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| Important classes of MAC protocols | |
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| MAC protocols for wireless sensor networks | |
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| Low duty cycle protocols and wakeup concepts | |
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| Sparse topology and energy management (STEM) | |
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| S-MAC | |
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| The mediation device protocol | |
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| Wakeup radio concepts | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Contention-based protocols | |
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| CSMA protocols | |
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| PAMAS | |
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| Further solutions | |
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| Schedule-based protocols | |
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| LEACH | |
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| SMACS | |
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| Traffic-adaptive medium access protocol (TRAMA) | |
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| Further solutions | |
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| The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol | |
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| Network architecture and types/roles of nodes | |
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| Superframe structure | |
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| GTS management | |
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| Data transfer procedures | |
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| Slotted CSMA-CA protocol | |
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| Nonbeaconed mode | |
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| Further reading | |
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| How about IEEE 802.11 and bluetooth? | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Link-layer protocols | |
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| Fundamentals: tasks and requirements | |
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| Error control | |
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| Causes and characteristics of transmission errors | |
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| ARQ techniques | |
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| FEC techniques | |
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| Hybrid schemes | |
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| Power control | |
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| Further mechanisms to combat errors | |
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| Error control: summary | |
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| Framing | |
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| Adaptive schemes | |
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| Intermediate checksum schemes | |
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| Combining packet-size optimization and FEC | |
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| Treatment of frame headers | |
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| Framing: summary | |
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| Link management | |
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| Link-quality characteristics | |
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| Link-quality estimation | |
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| Summary | |
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| Naming and addressing | |
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| Fundamentals | |
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| Use of addresses and names in (sensor) networks | |
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| Address management tasks | |
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| Uniqueness of addresses | |
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| Address allocation and assignment | |
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| Addressing overhead | |
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| Address and name management in wireless sensor networks | |
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| Assignment of MAC addresses | |
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| Distributed assignment of networkwide addresses | |
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| Distributed assignment of locally unique addresses | |
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| Address assignment algorithm | |
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| Address selection and representation | |
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| Further schemes | |
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| Content-based and geographic addressing | |
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| Content-based addressing | |
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| Geographic addressing | |
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| Summary | |
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| Time synchronization | |
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| Introduction to the time synchronization problem | |
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| The need for time synchronization in wireless sensor networks | |
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| Node clocks and the problem of accuracy | |
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| Properties and structure of time synchronization algorithms | |
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| Time synchronization in wireless sensor networks | |
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| Protocols based on sender/receiver synchronization | |
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| Lightweight time synchronization protocol (LTS) | |
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| How to increase accuracy and estimate drift | |
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| Timing-sync protocol for sensor networks (TPSN) | |
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| Protocols based on receiver/receiver synchronization | |
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| Reference broadcast synchronization (RBS) | |
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| Hierarchy referencing time synchronization (HRTS) | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Localization and positioning | |
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| Properties of localization and positioning procedures | |
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| Possible approaches | |
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| Proximity | |
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| Trilateration and triangulation | |
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| Scene analysis | |
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| Mathematical basics for the lateration problem | |
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| Solution with three anchors and correct distance values | |
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| Solving with distance errors | |
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| Single-hop localization | |
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| Active Badge | |
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| Active office | |
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| RADAR | |
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| Cricket | |
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| Overlapping connectivity | |
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| Approximate point in triangle | |
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| Using angle of arrival information | |
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| Positioning in multihop environments | |
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| Connectivity in a multihop network | |
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| Multihop range estimation | |
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| Iterative and collaborative multilateration | |
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| Probabilistic positioning description and propagation | |
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| Impact of anchor placement | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Topology control | |
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| Motivation and basic ideas | |
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| Options for topology control | |
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| Aspects of topology-control algorithms | |
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| Controlling topology in flat networks - Power control | |
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| Some complexity results | |
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| Are there magic numbers? - bounds on critical parameters | |
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| Some example constructions and protocols | |
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| Further reading on flat topology control | |
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| Hierarchical networks by dominating sets | |
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| Motivation and definition | |
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| A hardness result | |
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| Some ideas from centralized algorithms | |
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| Some distributed approximations | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Hierarchical networks by clustering | |
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| Definition of clusters | |
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| A basic idea to construct independent sets | |
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| A generalization and some performance insights | |
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| Connecting clusters | |
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| Rotating clusterheads | |
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| Some more algorithm examples | |
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| Multihop clusters | |
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| Multiple layers of clustering | |
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| Passive clustering | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Combining hierarchical topologies and power control | |
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| Pilot-based power control | |
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| Ad hoc Network Design Algorithm (ANDA) | |
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| CLUSTERPOW | |
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| Adaptive node activity | |
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| Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF) | |
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| Adaptive Self-Configuring sEnsor Networks' Topologies (ASCENT) | |
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| Turning off nodes on the basis of sensing coverage | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Routing protocols | |
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| The many faces of forwarding and routing | |
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| Gossiping and agent-based unicast forwarding | |
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| Basic idea | |
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| Randomized forwarding | |
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| Random walks | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Energy-efficient unicast | |
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| Overview | |
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| Some example unicast protocols | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Multipath unicast routing | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Broadcast and multicast | |
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| Overview | |
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| Source-based tree protocols | |
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| Shared, core-based tree protocols | |
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| Mesh-based protocols | |
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| Further reading on broadcast and multicast | |
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| Geographic routing | |
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| Basics of position-based routing | |
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| Geocasting | |
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| Further reading on geographic routing | |
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| Mobile nodes | |
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| Mobile sinks | |
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| Mobile data collectors | |
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| Mobile regions | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Data-centric and content-based networking | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The publish/subscribe interaction paradigm | |
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| Addressing data | |
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| Implementation options | |
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| Distribution versus gathering of data - In-network processing | |
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| Data-centric routing | |
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| One-shot interactions | |
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| Repeated interactions | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Data aggregation | |
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| Overview | |
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| A database interface to describe aggregation operations | |
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| Categories of aggregation operations | |
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| Placement of aggregation points | |
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| When to stop waiting for more data | |
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| Aggregation as an optimization problem | |
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| Broadcasting an aggregated value | |
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| Information-directed routing and aggregation | |
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| Some further examples | |
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| Further reading on data aggregation | |
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| Data-centric storage | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Transport layer and quality of service | |
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| The transport layer and QoS in wireless sensor networks | |
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| Quality of service/reliability | |
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| Transport protocols | |
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| Coverage and deployment | |
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| Sensing models | |
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| Coverage measures | |
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| Uniform random deployments: Poisson point processes | |
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| Coverage of random deployments: Boolean sensing model | |
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| Coverage of random deployments: general sensing model | |
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| Coverage determination | |
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| Coverage of grid deployments | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Reliable data transport | |
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| Reliability requirements in sensor networks | |
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| Single packet delivery | |
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| Using a single path | |
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| Using multiple paths | |
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| Multiple receivers | |
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| Summary | |
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| Block delivery | |
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| PSFQ: block delivery in the sink-to-sensors case | |
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| RMST: block delivery in the sensors-to-sink case | |
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| What about TCP? | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Congestion control and rate control | |
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| Congestion situations in sensor networks | |
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| Mechanisms for congestion detection and handling | |
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| Protocols with rate control | |
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| The CODA congestion-control framework | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Advanced application support | |
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| Advanced in-network processing | |
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| Going beyond mere aggregation of data | |
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| Distributed signal processing | |
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| Distributed source coding | |
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| Network coding | |
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| Further issues | |
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| Security | |
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| Fundamentals | |
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| Security considerations in wireless sensor networks | |
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| Denial-of-service attacks | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Application-specific support | |
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| Target detection and tracking | |
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| Contour/edge detection | |
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| Field sampling | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Index | |