| |
| |
| |
| Current Concepts of Bone Loss and Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| New Concepts of Bone Remodeling: A Unified Spatial and Temporal Model with Physiologic and Pathophysiologic Implications | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Purposes of Bone Remodeling | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Basic Multicellular Unit as the Instrument of Bone Remodeling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disordered Remodeling and Age Related Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| On Changing Views about Age-Related Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| On the Two Paradigms | |
| |
| |
| |
| The 1960 Paradigm | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Utah Paradigm | |
| |
| |
| |
| Age-Related Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Proposed Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Glossary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Bone Quality on Bone Loss and Fragility | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Bone Quality | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aging Changes in the Skeleton | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Problem of Diagenesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in Bone Mineralization with Diseases and Treatments | |
| |
| |
| |
| What Determines Skeletal Fragility? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Population Approaches | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ethnic Differences in Bone Mass and Architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Densitometry and Assessment of Bone Architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Density and Fracture Incidence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Use of "Race" and "Ethnicity" in Biomedical Literature on Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Mass and Bone Density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Definitions of Bone Density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ethnic Differences in Bone Density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Quality and Bone Turnover | |
| |
| |
| |
| Factors Affecting Bone Mass and Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adjusting Bone Density for Body Size | |
| |
| |
| |
| Body Size and Composition, and Preservation of the Skeleton | |
| |
| |
| |
| Calcium Nutrition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physical Activity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hip Axis Length | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cross-Sectional Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fracture Incidence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Loss, Fracture Histories, and Body Composition Characteristics of Older Males | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Definition of Terms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Loss in Other Primates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Population Differences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Risk Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Factors Influencing Bone Turnover | |
| |
| |
| |
| Peak Bone Mass | |
| |
| |
| |
| Endocrinological Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vitamin D and Vitamin D Receptors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Body Composition and Mechanical Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Sun City/Tucson Longitudinal Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Objectives | |
| |
| |
| |
| Subjects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Results | |
| |
| |
| |
| Discussion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Observed Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in Body Composition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nutrition, Bone Density, and Prostate Cancer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Histomorphometry of the Subadult Rib: Age-Associated Changes in Bone Mass and the Creation of Peak Bone Mass | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intracortical Bone Remodeling in the Subadult Rib | |
| |
| |
| |
| Peak Bone Mass and Age-Associated Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| Factors Determining Peak Bone Mass | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Study of Subadult Rib Histomorphometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cross-Sectional Areas and Bone Mass | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intracortical Remodeling: Osteon Population Density and Osteon Size | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evolutionary Perspectives | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Evolutionary and Biocultural Approach to Understanding the Effects of Reproductive Factors on the Female Skeleton | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pregnancy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Parity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lactation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Animal Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evolutionary and Historical Evidence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Discussion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Functional Adaptation and Fragility of the Skeleton | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanisms of Functional Adaptation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effector Cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensor Cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strain and the Mechanostat | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Two Poles of Adaptation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disuse: Subnormal Loading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overuse: Supernormal Loading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Skeletal Maintenance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue Damage Activates Remodeling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Remodeling Reduces Skeletal Weight | |
| |
| |
| |
| Responsive vs. Permissive Remodeling | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Volume Effect on Strength and Fatigue Life | |
| |
| |
| |
| Somatic vs. Evolutionary Adaptation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Skeletal Fragility | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Mechanostat and Sexual Dimorphism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Priorities in Male and Female Bones | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estrogen and the Mechanostat Set Point | |
| |
| |
| |
| Menopause, the Set Point, and Postmenopausal Fragility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effects of Vitamin D on Bone and Natural Selection of Skin Color: How Much Vitamin D Nutrition are We Talking About? | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Skin and Vitamin D Uptake | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metabolism of Vitamin D | |
| |
| |
| |
| What is Lack of Vitamin D? | |
| |
| |
| |
| "Normal" Requirements for Calcium and Vitamin D | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fur-Bearing Primates Obtain Vitamin D by Mouth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vitamin D Deficiency Affecting Genetic Selection for Lighter Skin Color | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nutritional Implications of Vitamin D in Human Biology | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Loss and Osteoporosis in Past Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Techniques for the Investigation of Age-Related Bone Loss and Osteoporosis in Archaeological Bone | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Problems with Diagenetic Change | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visual Examination of Complete Bones | |
| |
| |
| |
| Investigations of Cortical Bone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metacarpal Radiogrammetry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cortical Histomorphometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Investigations of Trabecular Bone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visual Examination of Trabecular Bone Structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Singh Index | |
| |
| |
| |
| Image Analysis of Trabecular Architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stereometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Dispersive Low Angle X-Ray Scattering (EDLAXS) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Investigative Techniques that Measure Whole Bone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optical/Photo Densitometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Differentail Diagnoses of Intravitam and Postmortem Bone Loss at the Micro-Level | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods and Techniques Used in Histological Research of Macerated Bone Specimens | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intravitam Changes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Primary Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Idiopathic Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Postmenopausal Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Senile Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Secondary Osteoporosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Osteoporosis due to Inactivity and Immobilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Loss Caused by Inflammatory Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Loss Caused by Tumorous Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Causes of Postmortem Bone Loss | |
| |
| |
| |
| Soil and water | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plant Roots | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fungi, Algae, Bacteria, and Protozoa | |
| |
| |
| |
| Arthropods and their larvae | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions and Summary | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Histomorphology, Geometry, and Mechanical Loading in Past Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanobiology Methods for Preserved Skeletal Remains | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interpreting Preserved Evidence of Mechanical Loading History from Bone Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Microstructure and Mechanical Loading History | |
| |
| |
| |
| Application of Geometric and Histologic Biomechanical Approaches to Past Populations: The Palomans | |
| |
| |
| |
| Skeletal Sample | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods and Findings | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes through Time at Paloma | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Remodeling and Age-Associated Bone Loss in the Past: A Histomorphometric Analysis of the Imperial Roman Skeletal Population of Isola Sacra | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Principles and Methodology of Bone Histomorphometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cortical Bone Sample Preparation | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Algorithm for Estimating Bone Remodeling rates in Ancient Skeletal Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diagenesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Age-at-Death | |
| |
| |
| |
| Previous Applications of Histomorphology in Past Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| African Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| European Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Native American Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Populations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Present Study: An Example in Histomorphology and Bioarchaeology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Results | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cortical Area in Isola Sacra | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bone Remodeling in Isola Sacra | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Isola Sacra with Modern samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Age Associated Bone Loss in the Imperial Romans | |
| |
| |
| |
| Future Directions | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |