| |
| |
| List of Figures | |
| |
| |
| List of Tables | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Brief History of Archaeological Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Archaeological Reconnaissance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fieldwalking in Britain | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Air Reconnaissance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surveys in Northwest Europe | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Viru Valley Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diyala and Uruk Surveys, Iraq | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Basin of Mexico Project | |
| |
| |
| |
| Site Survey in the American Southwest | |
| |
| |
| |
| Survey in North American Forests | |
| |
| |
| |
| "Non-site Survey," and "Landscape Archaeology" | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intertidal and Shallow-lake Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Survey's Unique Contribution to Archaeology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surface Distributions and Buried Landscapes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Models of Cultural Distributions | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Monument Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Earthwork Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Uniform Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Modal, "Bulls-eye," or "Fried-egg" Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mathematical Models for Clusters of Artifacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Contagious Distributions | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Palimpsest Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| The "Off-site" or "Intersite" Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Distributional or "Non-site" Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Place Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Paleolandscape Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| Research Design in Archaeological Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Goals of Archaeological Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Goals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Prospection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Statistical Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Populations, Parameters and Estimation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Densities of Sites | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Densities of Artifacts on the Landscape | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Proportions of Site Types | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Human Population Size or Growth Rate | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Proportions of Sites by Ecological or Land-use Zone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Parameters of Artifact Attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating the Range or Diversity of Archaeological Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Relevance of Prospecting Tools | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surveying for Spatial Structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detecting Settlement Lattices, Landscape Systems, and Communication Routes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mapping "Continuous" Distributions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surveys with Multiple Goals | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Issue of Methodological Consistency | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Discovery of Archaeological Materials by Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Factors Affecting Archaeological Detection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Method of Inspection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visual Inspection in Surface Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visual Inspection of Aerial Photographs with Groundchecks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Survey by Test Pits, Divoting, Coring, or Augering (SST) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geophysical Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resistivity Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetometer Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic (EM) Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Seismic Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sonar or Acoustic Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Underwater Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visibility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Obtrusiveness | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Constituents of Archaeological Distributions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Obtrusiveness of Artifact Scatters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Constituent Removal by Chemical or Mechanical Destruction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Obtrusiveness in Aerial Reconnaissance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Obtrusiveness in Geophysical Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Obtrusiveness in Chemical Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Distance from Target to Sensor | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Law of Clean Sweep or Definite Detection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Inverse-cube Law | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geometry of Sites or Artifact Clusters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intensity or Density of Effort | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resolution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coverage | |
| |
| |
| |
| Accessibility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Crew Training, Experience, and Motivation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Training and Briefing Team Members | |
| |
| |
| |
| Team Composition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Team Motivation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Accounting for Variability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| False Targets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Discovery Probabilities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Post-depositional Factors that Affect Spatial Pattern | |
| |
| |
| |
| Artifact Displacement or Sorting by Erosion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Artifact Removal by Erosion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Artifact Displacement or Removal by Bioturbation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Artifact Removal by Chemical or Mechanical Destruction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Artifact Displacement by Plowing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Units, Sampling Frames, and Edge Effects in Archaeological Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Spatial Distribution of Material Culture | |
| |
| |
| |
| Boundaries of the Survey Area | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physical-Geographical Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
| Historical-Political Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimated Political-Economic Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
| Catchment Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oversize Boundaries and Group Territories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Edge Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Edge Effects in Nearest Neighbor Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Edge Effects on Rank-Size Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types, Shapes, and Orientation of Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sites | |
| |
| |
| |
| Site Size, Shape, and Orientation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geometrical Spatial Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Edge Effects on the Detection of Sites | |
| |
| |
| |
| Edge Effects on Parameter Estimates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cost Effects of Unit Size | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-geometrical Spatial Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Arrangement of Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Regular Grids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Arrangement of Point Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Parallel Transects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intersecting Transects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Undulating Transects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Retiring-square Pattern | |
| |
| |
| |
| Unconventional Arrangements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nested Arrangements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scale Effects in Archaeological Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| Size of Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimal Arrangements, Sizes, and Spacing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Arrangement of Systematic Point Grids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Arrangement of Continuous Parallel Transects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Arrangement of Polygons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Spacing of Systematic Point Grids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimal Spacing of Point Grids at a Fixed Cost | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimal Spacing of Point Grids Taking Cost and "Value" into Account | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Spacing of Parallel Transects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimal Spacing of Transects Taking Costs and "Value" into Account | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spacing Transects within Polygons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Retiring-square Pattern | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Size of Quadrats and Other Spatial Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing Polygon Size for the Variance of Estimates at a Fixed Cost | |
| |
| |
| |
| Balancing the Costs and Benefits of Polygon Size | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing the Size of SSTs for Artifact Density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influences on Detection of Spatial Pattern | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influences on Parameter Estimates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sampling Space: Statistical Surveys | |