| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainable Energy-The Engine of Sustainable Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainable Energy: The Engine of Sustainable Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Defining Energy-Scientific and Engineering Foundations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aspects of Energy Production and Consumption | |
| |
| |
| |
| National and Global Patterns of Energy Supply and Utilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Effects of Energy-Gaining Understanding | |
| |
| |
| |
| Confronting the Energy-Prosperity-Environmental Dilemma | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mathematical Representations of Sustainability | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Rest of This Book | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimation and Evaluation of Energy Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Units of Measurement: Energy and Power | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Different Forms of Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Energy Lifecycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimation and Valuation of Fossil Mineral Fuels, Especially Petroleum | |
| |
| |
| |
| Asking the right questions and avoiding the unanswerable ones | |
| |
| |
| |
| Perspectives from mineral geology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Two interpretations of hydrocarbon fuel economics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Categories of reserves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Forecasting mineral fuel prices and supplies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geopolitical factors and energy supply "crises" | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lessons for Sustainable Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Technical Performance: Allowability, Efficiency, Production Rates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Relation to Sustainability | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Introduction to Methods of Thermodynamic Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Allowability, efficiency, and the Second Law | |
| |
| |
| |
| More about entropy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis of ideal (Carnot) heat engines | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis of real world (irreversible) heat engines | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Importance of Rate Processes in Energy Conversion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Rate Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Physical Transport of Heat | |
| |
| |
| |
| Foundations for quantitative analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal conduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Convective heat transfer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radiative heat transmission | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heat transfer by tandem mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Use and Abuse of Time Scales | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Resources and Energy Conversion-Fertile Common Ground | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Local, Regional, and Global Environmental Effects of Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| How Energy Systems Interact with the Environment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Known and potential environmental threats | |
| |
| |
| |
| Origin of harmful agents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Length and time scales for environmental impacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adverse Environmental Effects Over Local and Regional Length Scales | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ambient air pollution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adulteration of soil, water, and indoor air | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transport and transformation of air, ground, and water contamination | |
| |
| |
| |
| Global Climate Change: Environmental Consequences over Planetary-Length Scales | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic science of the greenhouse effect | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy and the greenhouse effect | |
| |
| |
| |
| Greenhouse consequences: Consensus, unknowns, misconceptions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Technological and policy response strategies: Evolutionary and revolutionary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Attribution of Environmental Damage to Energy Utilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diagnosing receptor jeopardy and injury | |
| |
| |
| |
| Source identification | |
| |
| |
| |
| Risk and uncertainty | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods of Environmental Protection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy and the environment as an ensemble of coupled complex systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Earth-system ecology as a working paradigm | |
| |
| |
| |
| Public policy instruments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Technological remedies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Benefits of Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pollution prevention and environmental restoration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Social and economic foundations for environmental stewardship | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implications for Sustainable Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental footprints as sustainability metrics | |
| |
| |
| |
| The unusual challenge of global climate change | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lessons from SO[subscript 2] Emissions Trading | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Project Economic Evaluation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Time Value of Money Mechanics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic aspects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Application to a typical cash flow scenario | |
| |
| |
| |
| Derivation of relations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pitfalls, errors, and ambiguities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Current versus Constant-Dollar Comparisons | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simple Payback | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economy of Scale and Learning Curve | |
| |
| |
| |
| Allowing for Uncertainty | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analytic uncertainty propagation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Monte Carlo method | |
| |
| |
| |
| Decision tree method | |
| |
| |
| |
| Accounting for Externalities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Accounting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modeling Beyond the Project Level | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Appendix A | |
| |
| |
| Appendix B | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Systems and Sustainability Metrics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and Historical Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy from a Systems Perspective | |
| |
| |
| |
| Systems Analysis Approaches | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lifecycle analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulation models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Risk-based models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measures of Sustainability | |
| |
| |
| |
| General indicators of sustainability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Categories of indicators | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drivers of Societal Change | |
| |
| |
| |
| Some General Principles of Sustainable Development | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fossil Fuels and Fossil Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Definition and types of fossil fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Historical and current contributions of fossil fuels to human progress | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainability: Challenges and opportunities | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Fossil Fuel Resource Base | |
| |
| |
| |
| How long will fossil fuels last? | |
| |
| |
| |
| "Unconventional" naturally occurring fossil fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fossil resources and sustainability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Harvesting Energy and Energy Products from Fossil Fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Exploration, discovery, and extraction of fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fuel storage and transportation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fuel conversion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fuel combustion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Direct generation of electricity: Fuel cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Manufacture of chemicals and other products | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Impacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pollutant sources and remedies: The fuel itself | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pollutant sources and remedies: Combustion pathologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pollutant sources and remedies: Carbon management | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geopolitical and Sociological Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Globalization of fossil energy sources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Equitable access, Revenue scaffolds, "American Graffiti" | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economics of Fossil Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Some Principles for Evaluating Fossil and Other Energy Technology Options | |
| |
| |
| |
| Emerging Technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Closure: Why Are Fossil Fuels Important to Sustainable Energy? | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Power | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear History | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Reactors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Burning and Breeding | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Power Economics | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Three Mile Island 2 Nuclear Power Plant Accident | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reactor Safety | |
| |
| |
| |
| Light-Water Reactors (LWR) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pressurized-Water Reactor (PWR) Technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Boiling-Water Reactor (BWR) Technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| RBMK Reactors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heavy-Water Cooled Technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gas-Cooled Reactor Technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Liquid-Metal Reactor Technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Actinide Burning | |
| |
| |
| |
| Advanced Reactors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Power Fuel Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fuel Cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uranium mining | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uranium milling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conversion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Enrichment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fuel fabrication | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spent fuel | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reprocessing | |
| |
| |
| |
| High Level Wastes (HLW) disposal | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fusion Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Why is fusion more difficult than fission? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetic fusion energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Inertial fusion energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Prospects for the future | |
| |
| |
| |
| Future Prospects for Nuclear Power | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Additional Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Renewable Energy in Context | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and Historical Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resource Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Impacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Technology Development and Deployment | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Importance of Storage | |
| |
| |
| |
| Connecting Renewables to Hydrogen | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Future for Renewable Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Additional Resources | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biomass Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterizing the Biomass Resource | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biomass Relevance to Energy Production | |
| |
| |
| |
| Utilization options | |
| |
| |
| |
| Advantages and disadvantages | |
| |
| |
| |
| More on resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical and Physical Properties Relevant to Energy Production | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biomass Production: Useful Scaling Parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Conversion of Biomass | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biomass to electricity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biomass to fuels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bioconversion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biogas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fermentation ethanol from corn and cellulosic biomass | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Enabling Research and Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disruptive Technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geothermal Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterization of Geothermal Resource Types | |
| |
| |
| |
| Definition in general | |
| |
| |
| |
| Natural hydrothermal systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geopressured systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hot dry rock | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magma | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ultra low-grade systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Markets for geothermal energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geothermal Resource Size and Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overall framework and terminology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quality issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resource base and reserve estimates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Operation and Equipment for Recovering Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drilling and field development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reservoir fluid production | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-electric, direct-heat utilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric power generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Equipment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power cycle performance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainability Attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reservoir lifetime issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental impacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dispatchable heat and power delivery | |
| |
| |
| |
| Suitability for developing countries | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potential for CO[subscript 2] reduction and pollution prevention | |
| |
| |
| |
| Status of Geothermal Technology Today | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hydrothermal | |
| |
| |
| |
| Advanced systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Competing in Today's Energy Markets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Research and Development Advances Needed | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potential for the Long Term | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hydropower | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of Hydropower | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hydropower Resource Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Energy Conversion Principles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conversion Equipment and Civil Engineering Operations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Civil engineering aspects of dam construction and waterway management | |
| |
| |
| |
| Turbines as energy convertors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainability Attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Status of Hydropower Technology Today | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economic issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potential for growth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Advanced technology needs | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Characteristics of Solar Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resource Assessment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Passive and Active Solar Thermal Energy for Buildings | |
| |
| |
| |
| Motivation and general issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Passive systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Active systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economic and policy issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Thermal Electric Systems-Concentrating Solar Power | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fundamentals and options | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power tower-central receiver systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Parabolic troughs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dish engine systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Current status and future potential of CSP | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solid state physical chemistry fundamentals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Performance limits and design options | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silica-based systems (crystalline and amorphous) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Copper indium diselenide (CIS) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cadmium telluride (CdTe) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Current status and future potential of PV | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainability Attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary and Prognosis | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ocean Waves, Tide, and Thermal Energy Conversion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy from the Tides | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy from the Waves: Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy from Temperature Differences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| Performance limits | |
| |
| |
| |
| OTEC technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economic Prospects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental and Sustainability Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Ocean as an Externalities Sink | |
| |
| |
| |
| Current Status and Future Prospects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| Appendix | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wind Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and Historical Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wind Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wind quality | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variation of wind speed with elevation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Air density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Maximum wind turbine efficiency: The Betz ratio | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wind Machinery and Generating Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rotor blade assembly | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tower | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nacelle components | |
| |
| |
| |
| Balance-of-station subsystems | |
| |
| |
| |
| System design challenges | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wind Turbine Rating | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wind Power Economics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measures of Sustainability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Net energy analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cost of externalities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental impact of wind power | |
| |
| |
| |
| Current Status/Future Prospects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| Appendix | |
| |
| |
| |
| Storage, Transportation, and Distribution of Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of Energy Supply Infrastructure Needs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Connected Efficiencies and Energy Chains | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modes of Energy Storage | |
| |
| |
| |
| General characteristics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy storage technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Transmission | |
| |
| |
| |
| General characteristics of energy transmission systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oil transport | |
| |
| |
| |
| Natural gas transport | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coal transport | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric power transmission | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Distribution Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| General characteristics of central versus distributed systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Combined heat and power opportunities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications to renewable energy systems and hybrids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainability Attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Improved resource utilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental, safety, and health concerns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Economic and operational attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Opportunities for Advancement of Sustainable Energy Infrastructures | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric Power Sector | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and Historical Perspectives | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power Generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Centralized energy generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric power generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental effects of electricity production | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power plant siting requirements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electricity economics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ways of organizing the electric economy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Demand-side management (DSM) and distributed generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electricity transmission and distribution and economic deregulation | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Example of Electric Industry Planning Using Multiattribute Assessment Tools | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Market Impacts on Electricity Generation Options | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sustainability Issues | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Web Sites of Interest | |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transportation Services | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and Historical Perspectives | |
| |
| |
| |
| Elements of the Transportation System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transportation Fuels and the Fuel Cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| Personal Vehicles | |
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| Historical perspectives | |
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| Looking forward | |
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| A Lifecycle Comparison of Road Transport Alternatives for 2020 | |
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| Freight Vehicles | |
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| Interurban and Intercontinental Transport | |
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| Motorization Trends | |
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| Sustainability Issues | |
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| References | |
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| Web Sites of Interest | |
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| Problems | |
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| Industrial Energy Usage | |
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| Introduction and Historical Perspectives | |
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| Lifecycle Analysis and Design for Sustainability | |
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| Metals Industries | |
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| Cement and Lime Industries | |
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| Chemical Industries | |
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| Forest Products and Agriculture | |
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| Waste Management Industries | |
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| Sustainability Issues | |
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| References | |
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| Web Sites of Interest | |
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| Problems | |
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| Commercial and Residential Buildings | |
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| Introduction and Historical Perspectives | |
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| Lifecycle Analysis | |
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| Residential Building Design | |
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| Commercial Buildings | |
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| Indoor Air Quality | |
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| Sustainability Issues | |
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| References | |
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| Web Sites of Interest | |
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| Problems | |
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| Synergistic Complex Systems | |
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| Introduction and Historical Notes | |
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| The Complex Systems View | |
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| Expert panels | |
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| Decision analysis techniques | |
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| Negotiation | |
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| How are decisions really made? | |
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| Some Case Studies | |
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| Beyond the Limits (Meadows et al., 1992) | |
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| Which World? (Hammond, 1998) | |
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| MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change: Integrated Global Climate Model | |
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| Transitional Pathways | |
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| The Challenge to Society | |
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| References | |
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| Web Sites of Interest | |
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| Problems | |
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| Choosing Among Options | |
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| Conversion Factors | |
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| List of Acronyms | |
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| Index | |