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| Preface | |
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| Cities and Nature | |
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| Human population increased sixfold over the last century | |
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| Water, warmth, and light make plants grow | |
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| High evapotranspiration promotes biodiversity | |
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| Humans exceed the natural population density for their body size | |
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| The last century brought increased agricultural efficiency | |
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| Fossil-fuel-based nitrogen production increased crop yields | |
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| Urban land use grew as small farms disappeared | |
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| Cities change ecological communities | |
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| Agricultural and urban land use reduce streamwater quality | |
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| Impervious surfaces in urbanized watersheds hurt organisms | |
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| Durham rainfall exceeds regulated basin sizes | |
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| Reservoirs reduce sediments while providing water | |
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| Shading and Cooling in City Climates | |
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| Low vegetation correlates with high temperature in Durham | |
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| Low vegetation correlates with high temperature in Indianapolis | |
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| Low temperature correlates with high vegetation | |
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| Urban heat islands spawn thunderstorms | |
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| Cities change rainfall patterns | |
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| Lightning strikes reflect urban weather changes | |
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| Cities grow warmer | |
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| Closed-in urban areas have higher heat islands | |
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| The urban heat island may be weak while Earth warms | |
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| Equal heat contained in air, a sprinkling of water, and an asphalt road | |
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| Whiter surfaces are cooler | |
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| Parking lot trees could provide shade | |
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| Big trees could provide lots of shade | |
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| Bigger and younger trees transpire more water | |
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| Trees near asphalt stop transpiring early in the day | |
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| Evapotranspiration is high from watersheds and lawns | |
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| New developments can plan for shade | |
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| Paving and grass can be combined | |
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| Energy Use and Carbon Budgets | |
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| U.S. energy sources have changed | |
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| States vary in their gasoline and electricity use | |
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| Per capita energy use depends on a state's population density | |
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| Economic productivity correlates with energy use | |
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| Photosynthesis links carbon, water, nitrogen, and sunlight | |
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| Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> increased with human emissions | |
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| Global warming changes nature | |
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| Species have different features in urban and rural environments | |
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| Soils contribute to carbon budgets | |
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| Vegetation stores and sequesters carbon | |
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| Urban pruning can be very intensive | |
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| Carbon costs of landscaping machines are high | |
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| Durham citizens export their carbon sequestration | |
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| Trees and white paint reduce energy consumption | |
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| Trees help small houses keep cool and break even for heating | |
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| Wood has low energy content | |
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| Durham citizens use more energy than local forests can provide | |
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| Emissions and Urban Air | |
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| Human sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are high | |
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| Fossil-fuel use produces many pollutants | |
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| Trees produce VOCs | |
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| VOCs produced by trees vary across the contiguous United States | |
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| Trees produce more VOCs in bright light and high heat | |
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| VOC sources vary in place and time | |
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| VOCs, reactive nitrogen, and sunlight lead to ground-level ozone | |
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| Large pollution inputs lead to high downwind ozone levels later | |
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| Ozone production and levels have a complicated emissions dependence | |
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| High ozone levels seen Wednesday through Saturday, March through September | |
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| Ozone in rural areas increases with temperature and nitrogen | |
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| When it's hot, urban ozone levels exceed regulatory allowances | |
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| High ozone levels harm vegetation | |
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| Air pollution varies greatly in space and time | |
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| Social Aspects of Urban Nature | |
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| What's the value of Chickpea? | |
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| S.A. Forbes (1880) estimates the value of birds | |
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| Trees make satisfying neighborhoods | |
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| People like neat trees, not messy forests | |
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| Park features involving scenic beauty and perceived security | |
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| Underbrush was bad as far back as 1285 | |
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| About 10 out of 10 people prefer malls | |
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| Varying tree cover in Chicago public housing | |
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| Reduced vegetation correlates with higher crime | |
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| Girls' self-discipline develops better with nature | |
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| Nature promotes emotional and physical health | |
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| Trees promote bird and plant species richness | |
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| Human Health and Urban Inequities | |
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| Heat waves lead to deaths a few days later | |
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| Particulate matter is bad for older people | |
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| High ozone and SO<sub>2</sub> levels predict high asthma hospitalizations | |
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| Asthma incidence and pollution aren't tightly correlated through time | |
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| Though cities differ, heat kills people in July and August | |
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| Air conditioning reduces heat-related mortality | |
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| Many people die in winter (accounting for age, race, and gender) | |
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| Lower income, fewer trees, and higher temperatures go together in Durham | |
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| Wealth, homeownership, and trees connect in Milwaukee, Wisconsin | |
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| Wealth, education, and vegetation correlate in Baltimore, Maryland | |
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| Parks, trees, and plants come with wealth | |
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| Minority populations have worse air, income, and asthma | |
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| Healthier neighborhoods are usually wealthier neighborhoods | |
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| Income helps education and increases life expectancy | |
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| Summary and Implications | |
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| Appendix: Graphical Intuitions | |
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| Three equivalent data representations | |
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| Graphing visual correlations | |
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| Importance versus significance | |
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| Plotting transformed data | |
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| Quantities covary | |
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| Sample sizes and measures of variation | |
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| Notes | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |