| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| Author's Note | |
| |
| |
| About the Author | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introducing World Prehistory | |
| |
| |
| Archaeology and Prehistory | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Amesbury Archer | |
| |
| |
| The Beginnings of World Prehistory | |
| |
| |
| Who Needs the Past? | |
| |
| |
| Science: Dating the Past | |
| |
| |
| Cyclical and Linear Time | |
| |
| |
| Written Records, Oral Traditions, and Archaeology | |
| |
| |
| Studying Culture and Culture Change | |
| |
| |
| Primary Cultural Processes | |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Approaches: Culture as Adaptation | |
| |
| |
| Climatic Change | |
| |
| |
| Culture as Adaptation | |
| |
| |
| Cultural Evolution and Cultural Ecology | |
| |
| |
| Multilinear Evolution: Prestate and State-Organized Societies | |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Approaches: Evolutionary Ecology and Hunter-Gatherers | |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Approaches: People as Agents of Change | |
| |
| |
| External and Internal Constraints | |
| |
| |
| Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Gender: Men and Women | |
| |
| |
| Trade and Exchange | |
| |
| |
| Ideologies and Beliefs | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Beginnings | |
| |
| |
| 7 Million To 40,000 Years Ago | |
| |
| |
| |
| Human Origins | |
| |
| |
| 7 Million To 1.9 Million Years Ago | |
| |
| |
| The Great Ice Age | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of the Human Line | |
| |
| |
| Aegyptopithecus | |
| |
| |
| Miocene Primates | |
| |
| |
| Molecular Biology and Human Evolution | |
| |
| |
| The Ecological Problems Faced | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adaptive Problems | |
| |
| |
| Fossil Evidence: 7 to 3 MYA | |
| |
| |
| Dating the Past: Potassium-Argon Dating | |
| |
| |
| Touma�: Sahelanthropus tchadensis | |
| |
| |
| Ardipithecus ramidus | |
| |
| |
| Australopithecus anamensis | |
| |
| |
| Australopithecus afarensis | |
| |
| |
| Laetoli: Footprints of A. afarensis | |
| |
| |
| Fossil Evidence: 3 to 2.5 MYA | |
| |
| |
| Gracile Australopithecines: Australopithecus africanus | |
| |
| |
| Robust Australopithecines: A. aethiopicus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Australopithecus garhi | |
| |
| |
| Early Homo: 2.5 to 2.0 MYA | |
| |
| |
| Homo habilis | |
| |
| |
| A Burst of Rapid Change? | |
| |
| |
| Who Was the First Human? | |
| |
| |
| Early Hominin Evolution: 7 to 1 MYA | |
| |
| |
| Archaeological Evidence for Early Human Behavior | |
| |
| |
| Evidence for "Central Places"? | |
| |
| |
| Site: Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, East Africa | |
| |
| |
| Hunting and Scavenging | |
| |
| |
| Plant Foraging and "Grandmothering" | |
| |
| |
| Toolmaking | |
| |
| |
| The Oldowan Industry | |
| |
| |
| The Mind of the Earliest Humans | |
| |
| |
| The Development of Language | |
| |
| |
| Social Organization | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens | |
| |
| |
| 1.9 Million To 40,000 Years Ago | |
| |
| |
| Pleistocene Background | |
| |
| |
| Lower Pleistocene (1.6 Million to c. 780,000 Years Ago) | |
| |
| |
| Middle Pleistocene (c. 780,000 to 128,000 Years Ago) | |
| |
| |
| Homo ergaster in Africa | |
| |
| |
| The Radiation of Homo ergaster | |
| |
| |
| The Archaic World | |
| |
| |
| Fire | |
| |
| |
| Homo erectus in Asia | |
| |
| |
| Southeast Asia | |
| |
| |
| China | |
| |
| |
| Early Asian Technology | |
| |
| |
| The Settlement of Temperate Latitudes | |
| |
| |
| Earliest Human Settlement in Southwest Asia and Europe | |
| |
| |
| Southwest Asia | |
| |
| |
| Europe | |
| |
| |
| Archaic Human Technology | |
| |
| |
| Hand Axes and Other Tools | |
| |
| |
| Hand Axes and the Evolution of the Human Mind | |
| |
| |
| Evidence for Behavior: Boxgrove, Sch�ningen, and Torralba | |
| |
| |
| Site: A 400,000-Year-Old Hunt at Sch�ningen, Germany | |
| |
| |
| Language | |
| |
| |
| The Neanderthals | |
| |
| |
| Dating the Past: Radiocarbon Dating | |
| |
| |
| A More Complex Technology | |
| |
| |
| Levallois and Disk-Core-Reduction Strategies | |
| |
| |
| Tool Forms and Variability | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of Burial and Religious Belief | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of Modern Humans | |
| |
| |
| Continuity or Replacement? | |
| |
| |
| Homo sapiens in Africa | |
| |
| |
| Molecular Biology and Homo sapiens | |
| |
| |
| Ecology and Homo sapiens | |
| |
| |
| The Spread of Homo sapiens | |
| |
| |
| The Issue of Cognitive Ability | |
| |
| |
| Homo sapiens in East Asia | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Great Diaspora: The Spread Of Modern Humans | |
| |
| |
| 45,000 Years Ago To Modern Times | |
| |
| |
| |
| Europe and Eurasia | |
| |
| |
| c 40,000 TO 8000 B.C | |
| |
| |
| The Spread of Modern Humans to 12,000 Years Ago | |
| |
| |
| The Upper Pleistocene (c. 126,000 Years Ago to 8000 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| Modern Humans in Southwest Asia | |
| |
| |
| The Upper Paleolithic Transition | |
| |
| |
| A Cultural Explosion? | |
| |
| |
| Modern Humans in Europe | |
| |
| |
| European Hunter-Gatherers (45,000 Years Ago to 8000 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| Settlement Strategies and Lifeways | |
| |
| |
| Social Life and Group Size | |
| |
| |
| Upper Paleolithic Art | |
| |
| |
| Site: Grotte de Chauvet, France | |
| |
| |
| Paintings and Engravings | |
| |
| |
| Explaining Upper Paleolithic Art | |
| |
| |
| Human Settlement in Eurasia (35,000 to 15,000 Years Ago) | |
| |
| |
| Siberia (?33,000 to 13,000 Years Ago) | |
| |
| |
| The Settlement of Far Northeast Asia | |
| |
| |
| Bifaces, Microblades, and the First Americans | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The First Americans | |
| |
| |
| 14,000 B.C. To Modern Times | |
| |
| |
| The First Settlement of the Americas | |
| |
| |
| Ice Sheets and the Bering Land Bridge | |
| |
| |
| The First Settlement of Alaska | |
| |
| |
| Biological and Linguistic Evidence for the First Americans | |
| |
| |
| The Earliest Sites South of the Ice Sheets | |
| |
| |
| Settlement Routes: Ice-Free Corridors and Seacoasts | |
| |
| |
| Late Wisconsin Settlement in North America? | |
| |
| |
| Central and South America? | |
| |
| |
| A Scenario for First Settlement | |
| |
| |
| The Paleo-Indians: Clovis and Others | |
| |
| |
| Big-Game Extinctions | |
| |
| |
| Later Hunters and Gatherers | |
| |
| |
| Plains Hunters | |
| |
| |
| The Desert West | |
| |
| |
| Eastern North America | |
| |
| |
| Site: Koster, Illinois | |
| |
| |
| Specialized Foraging Societies in Central and South America | |
| |
| |
| Aleuts and Inuit (Eskimo) | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Africans and Australians | |
| |
| |
| 45,000 Years Ago To Modern Times | |
| |
| |
| African Hunter-Gatherers, Past and Present | |
| |
| |
| Sunda and Sahul: The First Settlement of Island Southeast Asia | |
| |
| |
| Site: Exotic Islanders: Homo floresiensis | |
| |
| |
| New Guinea and Adjacent Islands | |
| |
| |
| Australia | |
| |
| |
| Ice Age Wallaby Hunters in Tasmania | |
| |
| |
| Later Australian Cultures | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intensification and Complexity | |
| |
| |
| Before 10,000 B.C. To Modern Times | |
| |
| |
| The Holocene (After 10,000 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| Coping with Environmental Variation | |
| |
| |
| Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers in Europe | |
| |
| |
| Site: Star Carr, England | |
| |
| |
| Mesolithic Complexity in Scandinavia | |
| |
| |
| The Maglemose Period (7500 to 5700 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| The Kongemose Period (5700 to 4600 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| The Erteb�lle Period (4600 to 3200 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| Hunter-Gatherer Complexity | |
| |
| |
| Conditions for Greater Complexity | |
| |
| |
| Attributes of Greater Complexity | |
| |
| |
| Debates About Social Complexity | |
| |
| |
| Hunter-Gatherer Societies in Southwest Asia | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| First Farmers 211 | |
| |
| |
| c. 10,000 B.C. To Modern Times | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Plenteous Harvest | |
| |
| |
| THE ORIGINS | |
| |
| |
| Theories About the Origins of Food Production | |
| |
| |
| Early Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
| Multivariate Theories | |
| |
| |
| Site: Guil� | |
| |
| |
| Naquitz, Mexico | |
| |
| |
| Differing Dates for Food Production | |
| |
| |
| Studying Early Food Production | |
| |
| |
| Dating the Past: Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Radiocarbon Dating | |
| |
| |
| Why Did Food Production Take Hold So Late? | |
| |
| |
| Consequences of Food Production | |
| |
| |
| Nutrition and Early Food Production | |
| |
| |
| Herding: Domestication of Animals | |
| |
| |
| Plant Cultivation | |
| |
| |
| Technology and Domestication | |
| |
| |
| Early Food Production | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Origins of Food Production in Southwest Asia | |
| |
| |
| A Scenario for Early Agriculture | |
| |
| |
| The First Farmers: Netiv Hagdud, Abu Hureyra, and Jericho | |
| |
| |
| Netiv Hagdud | |
| |
| |
| Abu Hureyra | |
| |
| |
| Jericho | |
| |
| |
| Diverse Farming Economies and Trade | |
| |
| |
| The Zagros and Mesopotamia | |
| |
| |
| Zawi Chemi Shanidar | |
| |
| |
| Ganj Dareh | |
| |
| |
| Jarmo | |
| |
| |
| Ali Kosh and the Lowlands | |
| |
| |
| Site: Ritual Buildings in Southeastern Turkey | |
| |
| |
| Early Farmers in Anatolia | |
| |
| |
| Ha�ilar and �atalh�y�k | |
| |
| |
| Two Stages of Farming Development | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The First European Farmers | |
| |
| |
| Mesolithic Prelude | |
| |
| |
| The Transition to Farming in Europe | |
| |
| |
| Farming in Greece and Southern Europe | |
| |
| |
| The Spread of Agriculture into Temperate Europe | |
| |
| |
| The Balkans | |
| |
| |
| Bandkeramik Cultures | |
| |
| |
| Frontiers and Transitions | |
| |
| |
| Social Changes, Lineages, and the Individual | |
| |
| |
| The Introduction of the Plow | |
| |
| |
| Plains Farmers: Tripolye | |
| |
| |
| Mediterranean and Western Europe | |
| |
| |
| The Megaliths | |
| |
| |
| Site: Easton Down and the Avebury Landscape | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| First Farmers in Egypt and Tropical | |
| |
| |
| Africa | |
| |
| |
| Hunter-Gatherers on the Nile | |
| |
| |
| Agricultural Origins Along the Nile | |
| |
| |
| Saharan Pastoralists | |
| |
| |
| Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Asia and the Pacific | |
| |
| |
| Rice, Roots and Ocean Voyages | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of Rice Cultivation | |
| |
| |
| Early Farming in China | |
| |
| |
| Southern and Eastern China | |
| |
| |
| Northern China | |
| |
| |
| Jomon and Early Agriculture in Japan | |
| |
| |
| Early Agriculture in Southeast Asia | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Princess of Khok Phanom Di, Thailand | |
| |
| |
| Rice and Root Cultivation in Island Southeast Asia | |
| |
| |
| Agriculture in the Pacific Islands | |
| |
| |
| The Lapita Cultural Complex and the Settlement of Melanesia and Western Polynesia | |
| |
| |
| Long-Distance Voyaging in the Pacific | |
| |
| |
| Science: Indigenous Pacific Navigation | |
| |
| |
| The Settlement of Micronesia and Eastern Polynesia | |
| |
| |
| The Settlement of New Zealand | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Story of Maize: Early Farmers in the Americas | |
| |
| |
| The First Plant Domestication | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of Maize Agriculture | |
| |
| |
| Beans and Squash | |
| |
| |
| Early Food Production in the Andes | |
| |
| |
| The Highlands | |
| |
| |
| The Peruvian Coast | |
| |
| |
| Early Farmers in Southwestern North America | |
| |
| |
| Hohokam | |
| |
| |
| Mogollon | |
| |
| |
| Ancestral Pueblo | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Chaco Phenomenon | |
| |
| |
| Preagricultural and Agricultural Societies | |
| |
| |
| in Eastern North America | |
| |
| |
| Moundbuilder Cultures | |
| |
| |
| Early Woodland (Adena) | |
| |
| |
| Hopewell | |
| |
| |
| Mississippian | |
| |
| |
| Human Settlement in the Caribbean | |
| |
| |
| First Settlement (Preceramic Cultures) | |
| |
| |
| Saladoid Migrations | |
| |
| |
| Ta�no Chiefdoms | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Old World Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| c. 3000 B.C. TO MODERN TIMES | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Development of Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Cities | |
| |
| |
| Six Classic Theories of the Emergence of States | |
| |
| |
| |
| V. Gordon Childe and the "Urban Revolution" | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ecology and Irrigation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Technology and Trade | |
| |
| |
| |
| Warfare | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cultural Systems and Civilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Change | |
| |
| |
| Social Theories | |
| |
| |
| Power in Three Domains | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Lord of Sic�n at Huaca Loro, Peru | |
| |
| |
| Chiefly Cycling: Processes and Agents | |
| |
| |
| Old World Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| The Collapse of Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Civilizations in Southwest Asia | |
| |
| |
| Upland Villages | |
| |
| |
| Settlement of the Lowlands | |
| |
| |
| Environmental Change | |
| |
| |
| Archaeological Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Temple at Eridu, Iraq | |
| |
| |
| Uruk: The Mesopotamian City | |
| |
| |
| Sumerian Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Exchange on the Iranian Plateau | |
| |
| |
| The Widening of Political Authority | |
| |
| |
| The Akkadians | |
| |
| |
| Babylon | |
| |
| |
| The Assyrians | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Egypt, Nubia, and Africa | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of the Egyptian State | |
| |
| |
| Ancient Monopoly? | |
| |
| |
| Naqada, Nekhen, and Maadi | |
| |
| |
| Writing | |
| |
| |
| A Scenario for Unification | |
| |
| |
| Intensification of Agriculture and Irrigation | |
| |
| |
| Archaic Egypt and the Creation of the Great Culture (2920 to 2575 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| The Old Kingdom and the Pyramids (c. 2575 to 2180 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Step Pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt | |
| |
| |
| The Egyptian State | |
| |
| |
| The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom (2180 to 1640 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| The Second Intermediate Period (1640 to 1530 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| The New Kingdom (1530 to 1070 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| The "Estate of Amun" | |
| |
| |
| Amarna and Akhenaten | |
| |
| |
| Mummies and Mummification | |
| |
| |
| The Restoration of Amun | |
| |
| |
| The Late Period (1070 to 332 B.C.) | |
| |
| |
| Egypt and Africa | |
| |
| |
| Nubia: The Land of Kush | |
| |
| |
| Meroe and Aksum | |
| |
| |
| North Africa | |
| |
| |
| Jenne-jeno and the Rise of African States | |
| |
| |
| Ghana | |
| |
| |
| Mali | |
| |
| |
| Songhay | |
| |
| |
| Farmers and Traders in Eastern and Southern Africa | |
| |
| |
| Towns and Trade on the East African Coast | |
| |
| |
| Great Zimbabwe | |
| |
| |
| Europe and Africa | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early States in South and Southeast Asia | |
| |
| |
| The Roots of South Asian Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Highlands and Lowlands: The Kulli Complex | |
| |
| |
| A Rapid Transition | |
| |
| |
| Mature Harappan Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Who Were the Harappans? | |
| |
| |
| Harappan Beliefs | |
| |
| |
| South Asia After the Harappans | |
| |
| |
| Southeast Asian States | |
| |
| |
| Dong Son | |
| |
| |
| Trade and Kingdoms | |
| |
| |
| The Rise of the God-Kings | |
| |
| |
| The Angkor State (A.D. 802 to 1430) | |
| |
| |
| Site: Angkor Wat, Cambodia | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Early Chinese Civilization | |
| |
| |
| The Origins of Chinese Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Longshan and Liangzhu | |
| |
| |
| Shoulder Blades and Oracles | |
| |
| |
| Xia and Shang | |
| |
| |
| Capitals and Sepulchers | |
| |
| |
| The Shang Royal Burials | |
| |
| |
| The Bronze Smiths | |
| |
| |
| The Warlords | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Burial Mound of Emperor Shihuangdi, China | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hittites, Minoans, and Mycenaeans | |
| |
| |
| Early Towns in Anatolia | |
| |
| |
| Balance of Power: The Hittites | |
| |
| |
| The Sea Peoples and the Rise of Israel | |
| |
| |
| The Phoenicians | |
| |
| |
| The Aegean and Greece | |
| |
| |
| The Minoans | |
| |
| |
| The Mycenaeans 449 | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Mycenaean Shrine at Phylakopi, Melos Island, Greece | |
| |
| |
| Greek City-States After Mycenae | |
| |
| |
| The Etruscans and the Romans | |
| |
| |
| The Etruscans | |
| |
| |
| The Romans | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Europe Before the Romans | |
| |
| |
| Early Copper Working | |
| |
| |
| Battle Axes and Beakers | |
| |
| |
| Site: �tzi the Iceman, Similaun Glacier, Italian Alps | |
| |
| |
| The European Bronze Age | |
| |
| |
| � Site: Stonehenge, England | |
| |
| |
| Bronze Age Warriors | |
| |
| |
| The Scythians and Other Steppe Peoples | |
| |
| |
| The First Ironworking | |
| |
| |
| The Hallstatt Culture | |
| |
| |
| La T�ne Culture | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Native American Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| 2000 B.C. TO A.D. 1534 | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mesoamerican Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| Village Farming | |
| |
| |
| Native American Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| Preclassic Peoples in Mesoamerica | |
| |
| |
| Early Preclassic | |
| |
| |
| Middle Preclassic: The Olmec | |
| |
| |
| Late Preclassic | |
| |
| |
| The Rise of Complex Society in Oaxaca | |
| |
| |
| Monte Alb�n | |
| |
| |
| Teotihuac�n | |
| |
| |
| Maya Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Maya Origins | |
| |
| |
| Water Management | |
| |
| |
| Kingship: Sacred Space and Time | |
| |
| |
| Political Organization | |
| |
| |
| Classic and Late Classic Maya Political History | |
| |
| |
| Site: Architecture as a Political Statement: The Hieroglyphic Stairway at Cop�n, Honduras | |
| |
| |
| The Ninth-Century Collapse | |
| |
| |
| The Toltecs | |
| |
| |
| Aztec Civilization and the Spanish Conquest | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Andean Civilizations | |
| |
| |
| The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization | |
| |
| |
| Coastal Foundations: The Initial Period | |
| |
| |
| Caral | |
| |
| |
| El Para�so and Huaca Florida | |
| |
| |
| Chav�n de Hu�ntar | |
| |
| |
| Paracas: Textiles and Coastal Prehistory | |
| |
| |
| Complex Society in the Southern Highlands: Chiripa and Pukara | |
| |
| |
| The Early Intermediate Period | |
| |
| |
| The Moche State | |
| |
| |
| Site: The Lords of Sip�n, Peru | |
| |
| |
| The Middle Horizon: Tiwanaku and Wari | |
| |
| |
| Tiwanaku | |
| |
| |
| Wari | |
| |
| |
| The Late Intermediate Period: Sic�n and Chimor | |
| |
| |
| The Late Horizon: The Inca State | |
| |
| |
| Amazonia | |
| |
| |
| The Spanish Conquest (1532 to 1534) | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Glossary of Cultures and Sites | |
| |
| |
| Glossary of Technical Terms | |
| |
| |
| Bibliography of World Prehistory | |
| |
| |
| Credits | |
| |
| |
| Index | |