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| List of Strategy Snapshots | |
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| Preface | |
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| Overview of Reading and Reading Problems | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Reading Problems: A National Dilemma | |
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| National Reading Levels | |
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| Reading Needs in Today's World | |
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| Need for Early Identification and Instruction | |
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| Providing Reading Assistance | |
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| Factors Associated with Reading Problems | |
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| Factors Within the Individual | |
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| Factors in the Home, Social, and Cultural Environments | |
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| Factors in the School Environment | |
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| Factors of Cultural and Linguistic Diversity | |
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| What Is Reading? | |
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| Constructing Meaning | |
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| Contribution of the Reader | |
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| Contribution of the Written Material | |
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| Contribution of the Reading Situation | |
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| Components of the Reading Process | |
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| Early Literacy | |
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| Word Recognition: Accuracy and Fluency | |
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| Reading Comprehension | |
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| Language and Meaning Vocabulary | |
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| Reading-Writing Connection | |
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| Enjoyment and Appreciation | |
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| Overview of This Book | |
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| Summary | |
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| Factors Associated with Reading Disability | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Environmental Factors | |
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| Home Environment | |
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| School Environment | |
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| Social Environment | |
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| Cultural Environment | |
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| Assessing Environmental Factors | |
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| Emotional Factors | |
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| Emotional Responses to Reading Problems | |
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| Assessing Emotional and Behavioral Factors | |
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| Intelligence | |
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| Definitions of Intelligence | |
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| Current Views of Intelligence | |
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| Evidence That a Person's Intelligence Can Be Changed | |
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| Cultural Bias in the Measurement of Intelligence | |
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| Using Intelligence Tests to Determine the Existence of a Reading Disability | |
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| Concerns about Using Intelligence Tests to Determine a Reading Disability | |
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| Language Abilities | |
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| Written and Oral Language | |
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| Receptive and Expressive Language | |
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| Systems of Oral Language | |
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| Speech Problems and Language Disorders | |
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| Nonstandard Dialects | |
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| English Language Learners | |
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| Assessing Language Development | |
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| Physical Factors | |
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| Hearing Impairment | |
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| Visual Impairment | |
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| Neurological Factors | |
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| Gender Differences | |
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| Other Physical Problems | |
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| Summary | |
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| Obtaining Background Information | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Information about the Environment | |
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| Home Environment | |
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| School Environment | |
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| Social and Cultural Environments | |
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| Information about the Individual | |
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| Emotional Information | |
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| Information about Potential (Intelligence) | |
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| Physical Information | |
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| Information about Language Development | |
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| Methods of Collecting Information | |
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| Interview and Questionnaire | |
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| Informal Talks | |
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| School Records and Materials | |
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| Observation during Reading Lessons | |
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| Summary | |
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| Informal Assessment Procedures | |
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| Introduction | |
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| General Diagnostic Questions: An Overview | |
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| How Severe Is the Reading Problem? | |
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| What Is the General Area of the Reading Problem? | |
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| Overview of Formal Assessment Measures | |
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| Overview of Informal Assessment Measures | |
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| Informal Reading Inventory | |
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| Obtaining Answers to General Diagnostic Questions | |
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| Administering and Scoring the Informal Reading Inventory | |
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| Interpreting the Scores of the IRI | |
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| Special Issues and Options in Using IRIs | |
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| Interactive Assessment Procedures | |
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| Assessment Portfolios | |
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| Summary | |
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| Assessing Reading: Formal Measures | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Overview of Formal Tests | |
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| Norm-Referenced Tests | |
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| Criterion-Referenced Tests | |
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| Bias in Testing | |
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| Ethical Considerations | |
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| Scores on Norm-Referenced Tests | |
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| Standardization, Validity, and Reliability | |
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| Tests of General Reading Assessment | |
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| Group Survey Tests | |
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| Individual Survey Tests | |
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| Normed Oral Reading Tests | |
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| Diagnostic Reading Tests | |
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| Diagnostic Reading Batteries | |
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| Diagnostic Tests of Specific Areas | |
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| Measuring Intelligence | |
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| Using Intelligence Test Information in Reading Assessment | |
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| Intelligence Tests That Should Be Administered by Psychologists | |
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| Intelligence Tests That Can Be Administered by Teachers and Reading Specialists | |
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| Interpreting Intelligence Test Scores | |
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| Summary | |
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| Providing Instruction and Intervention Strategies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Effective Intervention Programs | |
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| Individual Intervention Programs | |
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| Reading Recovery | |
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| Early Steps | |
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| Book Buddies | |
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| Individual Intervention for Older Students | |
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| Group Intervention Programs | |
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| The Boulder Project | |
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| Early Intervention in Reading (EIR) | |
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| First Grade Group Intervention | |
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| Reading Club | |
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| Literacy Booster Groups | |
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| Intervention in the Classroom | |
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| Cross-Age Tutoring | |
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| Project Success | |
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| Readers' Workshop | |
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| Total School or Classroom Interventions | |
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| Success for All | |
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| Four Blocks Literacy Model | |
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| Fluency-Oriented Reading Program | |
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| Principles of Teaching Students Struggling with Literacy | |
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| Emphasize Reading | |
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| Teach Students the Strategies That Good Readers Use | |
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| Make Assessment an Ongoing and Integral Component of Instruction | |
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| Provide a Balanced Instructional Framework | |
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| Provide a Consistent Instructional Structure and Use Time Effectively | |
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| Provide Text That Students Can Read Successfully | |
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| Provide Time for Word Study | |
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| Encourage Independent Reading | |
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| Include Writing as Part of the Lesson Structure | |
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| Keep the Size of the Group as Small as Possible | |
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| Coordinate Intervention Instruction and Classroom Instruction | |
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| Build Rapport by Fostering Acceptance, Security, and Success | |
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| Application of Common Intervention Elements to Program Design | |
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| Summary | |
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| Early Literacy | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Early Literacy Concepts | |
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| Oral Language Development | |
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| Concepts about Print | |
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| Alphabet Knowledge | |
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| Phonemic Awareness | |
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| Letter-Sound Correspondence | |
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| Beginning Reading Vocabulary | |
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| Strategies to Develop Early Literacy Concepts | |
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| Oral Language Development | |
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| Concepts about Print | |
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| Alphabet Knowledge | |
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| Phonemic Awareness | |
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| Letter-Sound Correspondence | |
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| Beginning Reading Vocabulary | |
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| Summary | |
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| Improving Word Recognition Accuracy | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Stages of Word Recognition Development | |
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| Strategies for Identifying Words | |
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| Assessing Phonics Strategies | |
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| Miscue Analysis | |
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| Tests of Phonics Patterns | |
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| Teaching Phonics Strategies | |
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| Patterns and Rules | |
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| Choosing the Phonics Teaching Sequence | |
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| Decoding through Analogy | |
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| Combining Phonics and Meaning | |
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| Making Students Aware of Their Strategies | |
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| Dealing with Exceptions | |
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| Ideas for Practicing Phonics | |
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| Teaching Multisyllabic Words | |
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| The Benchmark Program | |
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| The Open Court Reading Program | |
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| Assessing Structural Analysis Strategies | |
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| Teaching Structural Analysis Strategies | |
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| Assessing Context Strategies | |
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| Miscue Analysis | |
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| Student Reading Interview | |
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| Comparison of Words Recognized in Lists and Passages | |
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| Teaching Context Strategies | |
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| Encouraging Students to Monitor for Meaning | |
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| Using Cloze | |
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| Summary | |
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| Improving Reading Fluency | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Role of Fluency in the Reading Process | |
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| Assessing Word Recognition Fluency | |
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| Listening to Students Read Orally | |
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| Determining Reading Rate | |
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| Timed Administration of Word Lists | |
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| Strategies for Developing Fluency in Context | |
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| Promoting Wide Reading of Easy Text | |
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| Using Patterned Books | |
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| Assisted Reading | |
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| Repeated Reading | |
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| Performance Reading | |
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| The Language Experience Approach | |
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| Making Oral and Silent Reading Effective | |
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| Fluency Development Procedures | |
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| Strategies for Developing Sight Words in Isolation | |
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| Choosing Words for Instructional Focus | |
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| Guidelines for Teaching Sight Words | |
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| Strategies for Focusing on Words | |
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| Mastering Function Words | |
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| Dealing with Reversals | |
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| Combining Contextual Reading with a Focus on Words | |
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| The Curious George Strategy | |
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| The Multiple-Exposure/Multiple-Context Strategy | |
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| Summary | |
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| Improving Vocabulary Development and Listening Comprehension | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Importance of Language to Reading | |
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| Causes of Problems with Language | |
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| Language Disability and Delay | |
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| Lack of Reading | |
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| Lack of a Rich Language Environment | |
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| Assessing Language Abilities | |
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| Informal Measures | |
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| Formal Measures | |
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| Conditions That Foster Language Learning | |
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| Exposure to Rich Language | |
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| Active Participation | |
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| Incidental and Explicit Instruction | |
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| Making Connections | |
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| Strategies for Fostering Language: Listening Comprehension | |
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| Reading Books to Students | |
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| Paired Story Reading | |
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| Directed Listening-Thinking Activity (DL-TA) | |
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| Sentence Building | |
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| Encouraging Verbal Expression | |
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| Strategies for Fostering Language: Meaning Vocabulary | |
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| Introducing Words Before Reading | |
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| Practicing and Reinforcing Meaning Vocabulary | |
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| Using Strategies to Figure Out Unknown Words | |
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| Using Poetry to Develop Language | |
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| Summary | |
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| Improving Comprehension of Narrative Text | |
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| Introduction | |
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| General Features of Effective Reading Comprehension | |
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| The Purpose of Reading Is Comprehension | |
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| Comprehension Is an Active and Accurate Process | |
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| Comprehension Uses Background Knowledge | |
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| Comprehension Requires Higher-Level Thinking | |
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| Comprehending Narrative Materials | |
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| Narratives Inspire Imaginative Personal Responses | |
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| Narratives Have Story Organization | |
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| Assessing Abilities with Narrative Text | |
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| Measuring General Comprehension Ability | |
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| Judging the Comprehension of Specific Materials | |
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| Strategies for Improving Comprehension before Reading | |
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| Building Background Knowledge | |
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| Predicting and Semantic Impressions | |
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| Reading a Story to Students | |
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| Strategies for Improving Comprehension during Reading | |
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| The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA) | |
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| Using Post-It Notes to Monitor Responses to Reading | |
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| Making Mental Images | |
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| Constructing Content-Free Questions | |
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| Using Discussion Cards | |
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| Strategies for Improving Comprehension after Reading | |
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| Comprehension Strategies that Develop Story Structure | |
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| Comprehension Strategies that Nurture Personal Response | |
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| Connecting the Literary Experience | |
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| Conceptually Connected Instruction (Themes) | |
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| Studying Different Genres | |
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| Summary | |
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| Improving Comprehension of Informational Text | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Nature of Informational Text | |
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| Types of Informational Text | |
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| Difficulties Presented by Informational Text | |
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| Importance of Informational Text | |
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| Assessing Abilities with Informational Text | |
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| Focusing the Informal Reading Inventory on Informational Text | |
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| Assessing the Use of Background Knowledge | |
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| Assessing Comprehension Monitoring | |
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| Assessing Ability to Transform Text for Studying | |
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| Strategies for Helping Students Read Informational Text | |
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| Strategies for Combining Prior Knowledge with Informational Text | |
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| Strategies for Monitoring the Comprehension of Informational Text | |
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| Content-Free Questions | |
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| Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) | |
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| Strategies for Transforming Informational Text | |
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| Summary | |
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| Reading and Writing | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Importance of Teaching Writing | |
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| Assessing Writing | |
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| Writing Instruction | |
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| Writing Process | |
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| Supporting Students' Writing | |
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| Written Conversations and Personal Correspondence | |
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| Personal Journals | |
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| Strategies for Integrating Reading and Writing | |
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| Writing and Reading Narrative Text | |
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| Writing and Reading Informational Text | |
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| Writing with Poetry | |
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| Developing the Ability to Spell | |
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| Spelling Development | |
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| Spelling Assessment | |
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| Spelling Instruction | |
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| Handwriting | |
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| Summary | |
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| Literacy Instruction for Diverse Populations: English Language Learners, Adolescents, and Adults with Reading Problems | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Teaching in a Multicultural Society | |
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| Diverse Cultural Views about Reading | |
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| Teaching Children from Diverse Cultures | |
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| English Language Learners | |
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| About English Language Learners | |
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| Models for Teaching English Language Learners | |
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| Teaching Reading to English Language Learners | |
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| Strategies for Teaching Reading to ELL Students | |
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| Role of Parents in Fostering Literacy | |
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| You Read to Me, I'll Read to You Strategy | |
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| Parent Workshops | |
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| Adolescents with Reading Problems | |
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| Characteristics of Adolescents with Reading Problems | |
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| Special Considerations at the Secondary Level | |
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| Components of Effective Secondary Programs | |
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| Adults with Reading Problems | |
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| Postsecondary and College Programs | |
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| Needs of Adults with Reading Problems | |
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| Instructional Programs for Adults | |
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| Summary | |
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| Literacy Instruction for Students with Special Needs | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 | |
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| Eligibility of Learning Disabilities | |
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| The Individualized Education Program (IEP) | |
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| Transition Services | |
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| Procedural Safeguards | |
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| Categories of Students with Disabilities | |
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| Learning Disabilities | |
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| Characteristics of Learning Disabilities | |
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| Educational Settings for Students with Learning Disabilities | |
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| Dyslexia: The Baffling Reading Disorder | |
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| Neurological Basis of Dyslexia | |
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| Genetics of Dyslexia | |
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| Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder | |
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| Characteristics of ADD | |
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| Eligibility of Children with ADD for Services | |
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| Behavior Problems of Students with ADD | |
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| Medication for Students with ADD | |
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| Other Students Who Are at Risk | |
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| Providing Reading Instruction for Students with Special Needs | |
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| Adapting Standard Reading Methods for Students with Severe Reading Disabilities | |
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| Differences in Learning Styles | |
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| Multisensory Methods for Teaching Reading | |
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| Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program (LIPS) | |
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| Direct Instruction Reading Program | |
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| Fast ForWord | |
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| Summary | |
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| Collaborative Assessment and Instruction | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Changing Roles of Reading Specialists | |
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| Title I Programs | |
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| No Child Left Behind Act | |
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| Narrowing the Achievement Gap | |
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| Role of the Reading Specialist in Assessment | |
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| Evaluation of Student Performance | |
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| Individual Diagnostic Procedures | |
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| Role of the Reading Specialist in Instruction | |
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| Working with Classroom Teachers | |
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| Working with Other Professionals | |
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| Reading Specialists as Literacy Leaders | |
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| Providing Support for Teachers | |
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| Providing Support for Paraprofessionals | |
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| Serving as a Liaison between Teachers and Administrators | |
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| Serving on Student Services Teams | |
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| Serving on the Instructional Intervention Team | |
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| Working with Parents | |
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| Literacy Advocates in the Community | |
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| Summary | |
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| Appendixes | |
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| Frequently Used Tests | |
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| Publishers of Educational Resources | |
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| An Informal Reading Inventory | |
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| Reporting Information to Parents | |
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| References | |
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| Name Index | |
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| Subject Index | |
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| Test Index | |