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| Framework for a Synthesis | |
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| Gaps and Inconsistencies in Modern Evolutionary Thought | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Six Points of Confusion and Controversy | |
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| The Unimodal Adaptation Concept and the Multimodal Products of Development and Plasticity | |
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| The Cohesiveness Problem | |
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| Proximate and Ultimate Causation | |
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| The Problem of Continuous versus Discrete Variation and Change | |
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| Problematic Metaphors | |
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| The Genotype-Phenotype Problem | |
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| Toward a Solution | |
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| Material for a Synthesis | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Previous Insights on Development and Evolution | |
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| A Unified Theory of Phenotypic Development and Evolution | |
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| Definitions of Key Terms | |
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| Plasticity | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Meaning of Plasticity | |
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| Mechanisms of Plasticity | |
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| Phenotypic Accommodation | |
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| The Evolutionary Importance of Mechanisms | |
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| Modularity | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Modularity as Plasticity | |
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| Hierarchy and Integration as Aspects of Modularity | |
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| Application of the Modularity Concept at Different Levels of Organization | |
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| Metamorphosis and Life Cycle Modularity | |
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| The Genetic Architecture of Modular Traits | |
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| Modular Traits as Subunits of Gene Expression | |
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| Limitations of the Modularity Concept | |
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| Complementarity | |
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| Landmarks in the Evolution of Modularity | |
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| Hypermodularity and Somatic Sequestration | |
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| General Evolutionary Consequences of Increased Modularity | |
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| Development | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Continuity of the Phenotype | |
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| The Dual Nature of All Regulation | |
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| Gene-Environment Equivalence and Interchangeability | |
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| The Organization of Development by Switches | |
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| Complementarity, Continued | |
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| Consequences for Selection and Evolution | |
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| Adaptive Evolution | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Prerequisites for Evolution by Natural Selection | |
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| The Origins of Novelty | |
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| Genetic Accommodation | |
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| Genes as Followers in Evolution | |
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| A Developmental Definition of Adaptive Evolution | |
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| Principles of Development and Evolution | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Evolutionary Consequences of Plasticity | |
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| Evolutionary Consequences of Modularity | |
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| Consequences of Hierarchical Organization | |
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| Consequences of Regulatory Complexity | |
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| Does Plasticity Accelerate or Retard Evolution? | |
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| Does Plasticity per se Evolve? | |
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| Does Behavior Take the Lead in Evolution? | |
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| Evolvability | |
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| Developmental Plasticity as a Solution to the Cohesiveness Problem | |
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| Darwin's Theory of Development and Evolution | |
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| The Origins of Novelty | |
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| The Nature and Analysis of Phenotypic Transitions | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Missing Chapters | |
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| Developmental Recombination as a Complex Response to a Simple Input | |
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| Important Distinctions | |
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| Problems in Interpretation | |
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| In Praise of Anomalies | |
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| Duplication | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Duplication and the Rule of Independent Selection | |
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| Gene Duplication | |
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| Duplication in the Origin of Novel Morphologies | |
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| Duplication in the Origin of Novel Behaviors | |
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| Concerted Evolution and Diversification in Multigene and Multiphenotype Families | |
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| Deletion | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Melanophore Deletion in the Midas Cichlid | |
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| Deletion in the Evolution of the Arthropod Body Plan | |
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| Life-Stage Deletions | |
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| Deletion in the Evolution of Behavior | |
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| Deletion of the Male Phenotype in Unisexual Flowers and Fishes | |
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| Deletion of Intermediates | |
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| What Happens to the Genes? | |
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| Reversion | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Examples | |
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| The Developmental and Genetic Basis of Atavisms and Reversions | |
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| Pleiotropy and Silent Genes | |
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| One-Step and Gradual Reversions | |
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| Heterochrony | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Behavioral Heterochrony | |
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| Socially Induced Heterochrony in the Evolution of Termites | |
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| Life-History Heterochrony in Vertebrates | |
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| Heterochrony in Plants | |
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| Gradual versus One-Step Heterochrony | |
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| Heterotopy | |
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| Cross-Sexual Transfer | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Organization and Reorganization of Sex Expression | |
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| Darwin's Theory of Cross-sexual Transfer | |
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| Kinds of Evidence for Cross-sexual Transfer | |
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| Alternative Explanations for Sexual Monomorphism | |
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| Cross-sexual Transfer in Plants | |
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| Cross-sexual Transfer in Animals | |
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| Female Hormones and Neurotransmitter Substances in Male Semen and Accessory Glands | |
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| Alternative Reproductive Tactics | |
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| Cross-sexual Transfer of Parental Care | |
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| Cross-sexual Transfer of Switch Mechanisms | |
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| The Social Environment as an Inducer of Cross-sexual Transfer | |
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| Quantitative Shifts and Correlated Change | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Correlated Extremes | |
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| The Two-Legged Goat Effect in Domestic and Natural Populations | |
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| Trade-offs | |
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| Quantum Shifts and Environmental Extremes | |
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| Combinatorial Evolution at the Molecular Level | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Combinatorial Evolution in Regulatory Molecules | |
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| Combinatorial Evolution in the Genome | |
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| Phenotypic Recombination by RNA Splicing | |
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| Genetic Accommodation at the Molecular Level | |
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| Combinatorial Evolution and DNA Sequence Conservation | |
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| Molecular Terminology and the Definitions of Evolution and the Gene | |
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| Speculations | |
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| Phenotypic Recombination Due to Learning | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Learning in Relation to Selection and Evolution | |
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| Learning as a Developmental Source of Evolved Correlations | |
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| The Genetic Accommodation of Learned Traits | |
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| Mimicry of Natural Selection by Learning | |
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| Evolved Components of Learning | |
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| Learned Components of Evolved Traits | |
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| Learning and Individual Differences in the Evolution of Specialization | |
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| Social Competition and Learning | |
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| The Importance of Forgetting | |
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| Recurrence | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Historical Discussions of Recurrence | |
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| Problems in the Interpretation of Recurrent Similarity | |
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| Patterns of Recurrence | |
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| Environmentally Correlated Recurrence | |
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| Consequences of Recurrence for Systematics and Phylogenetics | |
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| The Evolutionary Significance of Recurrence | |
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| Alternative Phenotypes | |
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| Alternative Phenotypes as a Phase of Evolution | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Terms and Distinctions | |
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| Alternative Phenotypes as Models for Relating Development and Evolution | |
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| Phenomena Easily Confused with Alternative Phenotypes | |
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| Historical Misconceptions about Alternative Phenotypes | |
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| How Alternatives Facilitate Evolution | |
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| Divergence Without Speciation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Specieslike Aspects of Alternatives | |
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| Evidence of Postorigin Divergence | |
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| Why Alternatives May Foster Divergence More Effectively Than Speciation | |
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| Phenotype Fixation and Developmental Character Release | |
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| Genetic Assimilation Revisited | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Maintenance Without Equilibrium | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Matching Models to Modes of Regulation | |
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| Maintenance of Conditional Alternatives | |
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| Alternative Phenotypes and Maintenance of Genetic Polymorphism | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Assessment | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Terminology | |
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| Selected Examples | |
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| Learning and Assessment | |
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| How Complex Mechanisms of Assessment Originate and Evolve | |
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| The Evolution of Assessment Involving Choice | |
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| Developmental Plasticity and the Major Themes of Evolutionary Biology | |
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| Gradualism | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Modern Permutations of the Gradualism Controversy | |
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| What the Gradualism Controversy Is Not | |
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| Fisher's Solution, or Why the Neo-Darwinian Resolution of the Gradualism Controversy Was Unsatisfactory | |
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| Nine Modern Beliefs about Gradualism Reexamined in the Light of Developmental Plasticity | |
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| Is Darwinian Gradualism Falsified by a Developmental Evolutionary Biology? | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Homology | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Cladistic and Broad-Sense Homology | |
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| The Criteria versus the Definition of Homology | |
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| Iterative or "Paralogous" Homology | |
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| "Mixed" Homology | |
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| Levels of Analysis and the Perception of Homology | |
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| Multiple Developmental Pathways and the Homology Concept | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Environmental Modifications | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Entrenchment of Environmental Elements in Development | |
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| The Environmental Induction of Novelty | |
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| The Superior Evolutionary Prospects of Environmentally Induced Traits | |
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| Recurrent Extreme Environments and Phenotypic Innovation | |
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| Evidence for Environmental Initiation of Reorganizational Novelty | |
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| Environmental Influence and the Paleontological Time Scales of Evolutionary Change | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Speciation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Developmental Plasticity and Speciation: Theory | |
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| Developmental Plasticity and Speciation: Kinds of Evidence | |
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| Examples | |
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| Speciation by Fixation of Parallel Alternative Phenotypes in the Two Sexes | |
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| Plasticity and Abrupt Sympatric Speciation | |
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| Other Proposed Examples of Sympatric Speciation | |
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| Alternative Phenotypes and Speciation in Clines | |
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| Learning, Sexual Selection, and Speciation | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Adaptive Radiation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Binary Radiations | |
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| Multidirectional Radiations | |
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| Synergism of Plasticity and Other Factors in Adaptive Radiation | |
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| Grounds for Generalization | |
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| Predictions | |
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| Macroevolution | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Intraspecific Macroevolution Compared with Previous Macroevolution Concepts | |
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| How Developmental Plasticity Facilitates Intraspecific Macroevolution | |
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| Evidence | |
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| Sexually Selected Flexibility and Macroevolutionary Trends | |
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| Systema Naturae, or Why All Phyla Are Old | |
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| Why Molecular Biology Cannot Solve the Macroevolution Problem | |
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| Punctuation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Plasticity and Punctuation | |
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| Two Fossil Examples | |
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| Morphological Stasis Is Not Evolutionary Stasis | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| One Final Word: Sex | |
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| Literature Cited | |
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| Author Index | |
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| Taxonomic Index | |
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| Subject Index | |