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| Understanding Grading | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Why Grading | |
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| Purposes for Grading | |
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| Definitions of Terms | |
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| Grading | |
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| Achievement | |
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| Validity | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Organization | |
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| Self-Reflection: Now and Later | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Grading in Its Contexts | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| The Historical Context of Grading | |
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| Grading at Universities, 1640s to 1800s | |
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| Grading in the Common School, 1800s | |
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| 1890 to 1920 | |
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| 1920 to 1930 | |
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| 1930 to 1960 | |
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| 1960 to 1980 | |
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| 1980 to 2000 | |
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| 2000 to the Present | |
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| Current Context of Grading | |
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| Social Context of Grading | |
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| Legal Context of Grading | |
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| Confidentiality | |
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| Grade Penalties | |
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| Appeals Policies and Due Process | |
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| Educator Responsibilities | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The Educational Psychology of Grading | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Student Perceptions | |
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| Influence of Grading Practices on Motivation to Learn | |
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| Attribution Theory | |
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| Goal Orientations | |
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| Self-Worth Theory | |
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| Function of Feedback to Students | |
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| Cognitive Evaluation Theory | |
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| Formative Assessment as Feedback for Learning | |
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| The Classroom Assessment Environment | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Part 1 Exercises | |
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| Integrating Assessment and Instruction | |
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| Designing Assessments That Reflect Intentions for Learning | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Matching Assessment and Instruction | |
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| Paper-and-Pencil Tests | |
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| Novel Applications Are Required to Tap Higher Order Thinking | |
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| Performance Assessments | |
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| Scoring Is Part of the Match | |
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| Tests | |
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| Performance Assessments | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Deciding on the Bases for Grading | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Formative and Summative Evaluation | |
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| Bases for Grading | |
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| Kinds of Grading Schemes | |
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| Points or Percents | |
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| Rubrics | |
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| Assessment Versus Grading | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Providing Grades and Other Feedback to Students | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Providing Informative Feedback | |
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| Student Involvement in Assessment | |
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| Creating Grading Criteria | |
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| Applying Criteria to Their Own and Peers' Work | |
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| Going Over Test Results | |
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| Grading Is a Skill | |
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| Exemplars | |
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| More Practice | |
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| Fourth-Grade "Dogs and Cats" Essays | |
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| High School English Essays | |
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| Grading Tests | |
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| Grading Term Papers, Written Reports, and Projects | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Part 2 Exercises | |
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| Combining Grades Into Marks for Report Cards | |
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| Grading Policies and Formats | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Grades Should Reflect Achievement | |
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| Report Card Formats | |
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| Physical Characteristics | |
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| Administrative Policy | |
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| Instructional Targets | |
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| Grading Policies | |
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| Grade-Point Averages | |
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| Self-Reflection Is Critical | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Developmental Concerns in Grading | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Grading in Special Education | |
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| Adapting Methods of Arriving at Report Card Grades | |
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| Adapting Reporting Mechanisms for Students with Special Needs | |
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| Adapting Grades for Individual Assignments | |
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| Providing Feedback to Students with Special Needs | |
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| Grading in Early Childhood | |
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| Grading in Elementary and Secondary Classrooms | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Developing Skills at Combining Grades into Marks for Report Cards | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Arriving at a Categorical Grade | |
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| Arriving at a Letter Grade via Rubrics | |
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| The Median Method for Calculating Report Card Grades | |
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| Combining Percent Scores and Rubrics or Grades | |
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| Arriving at a Letter Grade via Points | |
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| Letter Grades as Averages of Percentage Grades | |
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| Letter Grades as Percentage of Total Possible Points | |
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| The Influence of Zeros in Point-Based Grading | |
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| Reviewing Borderline Grades | |
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| Electronic Methods: Gradebook Packages, Web-Based Systems | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Other Ways of Communicating About Student Achievement | |
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| Key Concepts | |
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| Sending Work Home | |
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| A Communication Process | |
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| Portfolios | |
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| Set a Purpose | |
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| Plan the Logistics | |
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| Collect the Evidence | |
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| Interpret the Evidence | |
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| Communicate the Information and Listen to the Response | |
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| Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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| Narratives | |
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| Set a Purpose | |
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| Plan the Logistics and Collect the Evidence | |
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| Interpret the Evidence and Communicate the Information | |
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| Listen to the Response | |
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| Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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| Parent-Teacher, Student-Teacher, or Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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| Set a Purpose | |
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| Plan the Logistics | |
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| Collect the Evidence | |
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| Interpret the Evidence, Communicate the Information, and Listen to the Response | |
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| Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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| Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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| Student-Teacher Conferences | |
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| Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Part 3 Exercises | |
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| Test Blueprints | |
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| Do's and Don'ts for Writing Good Test Items | |
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| Alternative Assessment Checklist | |
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| Key for Sample Papers from Chapter 6 | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |