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| Preface | |
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| Fundamentals of Analytical Instruments | |
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| Elements of an Analytical Instrument | |
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| Sensors and Transducers | |
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| Classification of Transducers | |
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| Performance Characteristics of Transducers | |
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| Smart Sensors | |
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| Signal Conditioning in Analytical Instruments | |
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| Read-out (Display) Systems | |
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| Analog Meters | |
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| Digital Displays | |
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| Laboratory Recorders | |
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| The Oscilloscope | |
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| Video Display Units | |
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| Intelligent Analytical Instrumentation Systems | |
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| PC-Based Analytical Instruments | |
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| Performance Requirements of Analytical Instruments | |
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| Errors in Chemical Analysis | |
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| Accuracy and Precision | |
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| Significant Figures | |
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| Application of Statistical Methods | |
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| Signal-to-Noise Ratio | |
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| Other Performance Parameters | |
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| Instrument Calibration Techniques | |
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| Calibration Curve Method | |
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| Standard Addition Method | |
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| Method of Internal Standard | |
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| Validation | |
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| Colorimeters and Spectrophotometers (Visible-Ultraviolet) | |
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| Electromagnetic Radiation | |
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| The Electromagnetic Spectrum | |
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| Interaction of Radiation with Matter | |
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| Laws Relating to Absorption of Radiation | |
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| Lambert's Law | |
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| Beer's Law | |
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| The Beer-Lambert Law | |
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| Deviations from Beer's Law | |
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| Quantitative Analysis | |
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| Choice of Wavelength | |
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| Simultaneous Spectrophotometric Determination | |
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| Absorption Instruments | |
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| Radiation Sources | |
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| Optical Filters | |
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| Monochromators | |
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| Optical Components | |
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| Photosensitive Detectors | |
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| Slit Width | |
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| Sample Holders | |
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| Ultraviolet and Visible Absorption Spectroscopy (UV-Vis) | |
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| Colorimeters/Photometers | |
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| Single-beam Filter Photometers | |
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| Double-beam Filter Photometer | |
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| Multi-channel Photometer | |
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| Process Photometers | |
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| Spectrophotometers | |
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| Single-beam Null-type Spectrophotometers | |
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| Direct Reading Spectrocolorimeters/Spectrophotometers | |
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| Double-beam Ratio-recording Spectrophotometers | |
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| Microprocessor-based Spectrophotometers | |
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| High Performance Spectrophotometers | |
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| Dual Wavelength Spectrophotometer | |
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| The Derivative Technique | |
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| Sources of Error In Spectrophotometric Measurements | |
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| Instrument-related Errors | |
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| Non-instrumental Errors | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Infrared Spectrophotometers | |
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| Infrared Spectroscopy | |
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| Basic Components of Infrared Spectrophotometers | |
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| Radiation Sources | |
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| Monochromators | |
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| Entrance and Exit Slits | |
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| Mirrors | |
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| Detectors | |
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| Types of Infrared Spectrophotometers | |
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| Optical Null Method | |
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| Ratio Recording Method | |
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| Sample Handling Techniques | |
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| Gas Cells | |
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| Eiquid Cells | |
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| Variable Path Length Cells | |
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| Sampling of Solids | |
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| Micro-sampling | |
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| Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) | |
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| FTIR Spectrophotometers | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) Technique | |
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| Flame Photometers | |
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| Principle of Flame Photometry | |
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| Constructional Details of Flame Photometers | |
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| Emission System | |
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| Optical System | |
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| Photosensitive Detectors | |
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| Recording System | |
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| Types of Flame Photometers | |
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| Single-beam Instruments | |
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| Double-beam Instruments | |
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| Recording Type Flame Photometers | |
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| Clinical Flame Photometers | |
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| Accessories for Flame Photometer | |
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| Expression of Concentration | |
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| Interferences in Flame Photometry | |
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| Flame Background Emission | |
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| Direct Spectral Interference | |
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| Self-absorption | |
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| Effect of Anions | |
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| Effect of Ionization | |
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| Solution Characteristics | |
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| Procedure For Determinations | |
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| Calibration Curve Method | |
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| Standard Addition Method | |
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| Internal Standard Method | |
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| Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometers | |
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| Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy | |
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| Atomic Absorption Instrumentation | |
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| Radiation Sources | |
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| Burners and Flames | |
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| Plasma Excitation Sources | |
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| Graphite Furnace for Atomization | |
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| Optical System | |
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| Electronic System | |
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| Signal Integration | |
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| Sampling System | |
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| Performance Aspects | |
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| Sources of Interferences | |
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| Anionic Interference | |
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| Viscosity Interference | |
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| Ionization Interference | |
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| Broadening of the Spectral Line | |
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| Meter Scale | |
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| Curve Correction for Linearization | |
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| Fluorimeters and Phosphorimeters | |
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| Fluorescence Spectroscopy | |
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| Principle of Fluorescence | |
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| Relationship between Concentration and Fluorescence Intensity | |
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| Factors Affecting Fluorescent Yield | |
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| Measurement of Fluorescence | |
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| Single-beam Filter Fluorimeter | |
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| Double-beam Filter Fluorimeter | |
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| Ratio Fluorimeters | |
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| Spectrofluorimeters | |
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| Microprocessor-Based Spectrofluorometer | |
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| Perkin Elmer Fluorescence Spectrometer Model LS-3 | |
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| Measurement of Phosphorescence | |
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| Phosphorescence Spectrometer | |
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| Raman Spectrometer | |
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| The Raman Effect | |
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| Resonance-enhanced Raman Scattering | |
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| Surface-enhanced Raman Scattering | |
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| Raman Spectrometer | |
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| The Source | |
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| Sample Chamber | |
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| The Spectrometer | |
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| The Detector | |
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| Computer | |
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| PC-based Raman Spectrometer | |
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| Infrared and Raman Microspectrometry | |
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| Photoacoustic and Photothermal Spectrometers | |
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| Photoacoustic Spectroscopy | |
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| System Components | |
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| Typical Photoacoustic Spectrometers | |
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| Photothermal Spectroscopy | |
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| Basic Processes in Photothermal Spectroscopy | |
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| Photothermal Instrumentation | |
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| Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Basic Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Principle of Operation | |
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| Types of Mass Spectrometers | |
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| Magnetic Deflection Mass Spectrometer | |
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| The Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Radiofrequency Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Components of a Mass Spectrometer | |
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| The Inlet Sample System | |
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| Ion Sources | |
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| Electrostatic Accelerating System | |
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| Ion Detectors and Recording of Mass Spectrograph | |
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| Vacuum System | |
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| Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Trapped Ion Mass Analyzers | |
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| Ion Cyclotron Resonance (ICR) Mass Spectrometery | |
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| Quadrupole Ion Trap Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Resolution in Mass Spectrometry | |
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| Applications of Mass Spectrometry | |
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| Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) | |
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| Liquid Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS/MS) | |
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| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer | |
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| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy | |
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| Principle of NMR | |
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| Nuclear Spin | |
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| Nuclear Energy Levels | |
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| Resonance Conditions | |
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| NMR Absorption Spectra | |
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| Relaxation Process | |
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| The Chemical Shift | |
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| Types of NMR Spectrometers | |
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| Continuous-wave NMR Spectroscopy | |
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| Fourier Transform NMR Spectroscopy | |
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| Constructional Details of NMR Spectrometer | |
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| Magnetic Field | |
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| The Radiofrequency Transmitter | |
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| The Signal Amplifier and Detector | |
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| The Display System | |
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| Recording Unit | |
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| Use of Computers with NMR Spectrometers | |
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| The Sample Holder | |
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| Varian T-60A NMR Spectrometer | |
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| Sensitivity Enhancement for Analytical NMR Spectroscopy | |
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| Optimization of Sample Volume | |
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| Optimization of Instrumental Parameters | |
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| Use of Signal Averaging Technique | |
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| Spin Decoupler | |
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| Fourier Transform NMR Spectroscopy | |
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| Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometers | |
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| Electron Spin Resonance | |
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| Basic ESR Spectrometer | |
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| Detailed Description of an ESR Spectrometer | |
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| The Magnet and the Magnetic Field Controller | |
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| Microwave Bridge | |
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| Modulation Unit | |
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| System Function Selector | |
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| Recorder | |
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| Oscilloscope | |
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| Sample Cavities | |
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| Sample Cells | |
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| Electron and Ion Spectrometers | |
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| Surface Spectroscopic Techniques | |
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| Electron Spectroscopy | |
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| Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) | |
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| Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) | |
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| Instrumentation for Electron Spectroscopy | |
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| Radiation Sources | |
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| Energy Analyzers | |
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| Electron Detectors | |
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| Read-out System | |
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| Vacuum Systems | |
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| Magnetic Shielding | |
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| Sample Handling | |
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| Ion Spectroscopy | |
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| Instrumentation for Ion Spectroscopy | |
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| Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy | |
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| Atomic Force Microscopy | |
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| Radiochemical Instruments | |
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| Fundamentals of Radiochemical Methods | |
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| Time Decay of Radioactive Isotopes | |
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| Units of Radioactivity | |
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| Types and Properties of Particles Emitted in Radioactive Decay | |
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| Interaction of Radiations with Matter | |
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| Radiation Detectors | |
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| Ionization Chamber | |
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| Geiger-Muller Counter | |
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| Proportional Counter | |
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| Scintillation Counter | |
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| Gamma Counters | |
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| Semiconductor Detectors | |
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| Liquid Scintillation Counters | |
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| Pulse-Height Analyzer | |
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| Gamma Spectrometry | |
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| X-Ray Spectrometers | |
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| X-Ray Spectrum | |
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| Instrumentation for X-Ray Spectrometry | |
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| X-Ray Generating Equipment | |
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| Collimators | |
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| Monochromators | |
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| X-Ray Detectors | |
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| X-Ray Diffractometers | |
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| X-Ray Absorption Meter | |
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| X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry | |
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| X-$ay Fluorescent Spectrometer | |
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| Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer | |
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| Electron Probe Microanalyzer | |
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| Automated Chemical Analysis Systems | |
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| Why Automate? | |
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| Benefits of Automation in Chemical Analysis | |
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| Types of Automatic Analysis Techniques | |
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| Basic Automatic Analysis System | |
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| Automated Biochemical Analysis System | |
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| The System Details | |
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| Advanced Versions of Multiple Analysis System | |
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| Flow Injection Analysis (FIA) Technique | |
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| Lab-on-Chip Technology for Automated Analysis | |
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| Gas Chromatographs | |
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| Chromatography | |
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| Basic Definitions | |
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| Gas Chromatography | |
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| Basic Parts of a Gas Chromatograph | |
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| Carrier Gas Supply or the Mobile Phase | |
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| Sample Injection System and the Size of the Sample | |
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| Chromatographic Column | |
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| Thermal Compartment | |
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| Detection Systems | |
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| Recording Instruments | |
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| Methods of Measurement of Peak Areas | |
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| Liquid Chromatographs | |
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| Liquid Chromatography | |
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| Types of Liquid Chromatography | |
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| Column Chromatography | |
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| Thin Layer Chromatography | |
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| Paper Partition Chromatography | |
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| High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) | |
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| High Pressure Pump System | |
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| Sample Injection System | |
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| The Column | |
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| Detection Systems | |
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| Programmers and Read-Outs | |
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| Amino-Acid Analyzers | |
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| Automatic Amino-acid Analyzer | |
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| Thermo-analytical Instruments | |
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| Thermo-analytical Methods | |
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| Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) | |
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| Instrumentation | |
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| Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) | |
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| Instrumentation | |
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| Differential Scanning Calorimetry | |
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| Simultaneous Thermal Analysis/Mass Spectrometer | |
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| Electrophoresis Apparatus and Densitometers | |
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| Electrophoresis | |
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| Electrophoresis Techniques | |
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| Paper Electrophoresis | |
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| Methods of Zone Localization | |
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| Quantitative Considerations | |
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| Evaluation of the Curves | |
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| Electrophoresis Apparatus | |
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| Electrophoresis Cabinet | |
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| Regulated Power Supply | |
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| Densitometer | |
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| Spectrodensitometers | |
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| Microprocessor-based Densitometer | |
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| Capillary Electrophoresis | |
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| Micro-Electrophoresis | |
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| Steps in the Electrophoresis Procedure Requiring Quality Control | |
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| Electrochemical Instruments | |
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| Electrochemical Methods for Analysis | |
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| Electrochemical Cell | |
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| Types of Electrodes | |
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| Potentiostats | |
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| Types of Electrochemical Methods | |
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| Potentiometers | |
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| Principle of a Potentiometer | |
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| Zero Current Potentiometry | |
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| Constant Current Potentiometry | |
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| Null-point Potentiometry | |
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| Cyclic Chronopotentiometry | |
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| Conductivity Meters | |
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| Measurement of Conductance | |
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| Conductivity Cells | |
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| Temperature Compensation in Conductivity Measurements | |
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| Conductivity Measurements Using High Frequency Methods | |
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| Voltametry | |
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| Polarographs | |
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| Basic Polarographic Instrument | |
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| Dropping Mercury Electrode | |
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| Reference Electrode | |
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| Typical Polarographs | |
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| Quantitative Aspects of Polarography | |
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| Types of Polarographs | |
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| Coulometers | |
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| Amperometers | |
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| Aquameters | |
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| Microcomputer-controlled Electrochemical Instrumentation | |
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| pH Meters and Ion Analyzers | |
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| What is pH ? | |
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| Principle of pH Measurement | |
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| Electrodes for pH Measurement | |
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| The Hydrogen Electrode | |
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| Glass Electrode | |
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| Calomel Electrode or Reference Electrode | |
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| Silver/Silver Chloride Reference Electrode | |
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| Combination Electrode | |
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| The Asymmetry Potential | |
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| Buffer Solutions | |
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| Calibration | |
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| A pH Meters | |
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| Null-Detector Type pH Meters | |
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| Direct Reading pH Meters | |
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| Industrial pH Meters | |
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| Failures in pH Meters | |
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| Selective Ion Electrodes | |
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| Ammonia Electrode | |
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| Fluoride Electrode | |
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| Ion Analyzer | |
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| PC-based pH Meter Ion-analyzers | |
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| Chemically Sensitive Semiconductor Devices | |
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| Biosensors | |
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| Blood Gas Analyzers | |
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| Acid Base Balance | |
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| Blood pH Measurement | |
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| Electrodes for Blood pH Measurement | |
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| Effect of Blood on Electrodes | |
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| Buffer Solutions | |
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| Measurement of Blood pCO[subscript 2] | |
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| Performance Requirements of pH Meters Used for pCO[subscript 2] Measurement | |
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| Blood pO[subscript 2] Measurement | |
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| A Complete Blood Gas Analyzer | |
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| Fibre Optic-based Blood Gas Sensors | |
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| Industrial Gas Analyzers | |
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| Types of Gas Analyzers | |
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| Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzer | |
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| Magnetic Wind Instruments | |
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| A The Electrochemical Methods | |
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| Galvanic Methods | |
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| Polarographic Cells | |
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| Conductometric Method | |
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| Infrared Gas Analyzers | |
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| Thermal Conductivity Analyzers | |
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| Analyzers Based on Gas Density | |
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| Method Based on Ionization of Gases | |
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| Environmental Pollution Monitoring Instruments | |
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| Air Pollution Monitoring Instruments | |
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| Representation of Gas Concentrations | |
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| Types and Concentration of Various Gas Pollutants | |
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| Instrumental Techniques and Measurement Range | |
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| Carbon Monoxide | |
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| Non-dispersive Infrared Analyzer | |
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| Gas Chromatography | |
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| Sulphur Dioxide | |
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| Colorimetry | |
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| Conductivitimetry | |
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| Gas Chromatography | |
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| Coulometry | |
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| Flame-photometric Detector | |
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| Ultraviolet Fluorescence Method | |
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| Nitrogen Oxides | |
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| Colorimetry | |
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| Chemiluminescence | |
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| Use of CO Laser | |
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| Laser Opto-acoustic Spectroscopy | |
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| Hydrocarbons | |
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| Flame Ionization Detector | |
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| Gas Chromatography | |
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| Use of Lasers | |
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| Ozone | |
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| Colorimetry | |
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| Chemiluminescence | |
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| Absorptiometry | |
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| Conductivitimetry | |
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| Automated Wet-Chemical Air Analysis | |
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| Total Oxidants | |
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| Sulphur Dioxide | |
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| Water Pollution Monitoring Instruments | |
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| |
| |
| Types of Pollutants and Techniques | |
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| |
| Electronic Devices and Circuits | |
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| |
| |
| Electronic Components | |
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| |
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| Active vs Passive Components | |
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| |
| |
| Discrete vs Integrated Circuits | |
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| Passive Components | |
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| Semiconductor Devices | |
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| |
| |
| P-N Junction | |
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| Semiconductor Diode | |
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| Transistors | |
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| |
| Bipolar Transistors | |
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| |
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| Field-Effect Transistor | |
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| MOSFET | |
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| |
| Integrated Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Operational Amplifiers | |
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| |
| |
| Symbolic Representation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power Supply Requirements for Op-Amps | |
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| |
| |
| Output Voltage Swing | |
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| |
| |
| Output Current | |
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| |
| |
| Characteristics of Op-Amps | |
| |
| |
| |
| Performance Characteristics of Op-Amps | |
| |
| |
| |
| Typical Op-Amp Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sources of Noise In Electronic Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Noise or Johnson Noise | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shot Noise | |
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| |
| |
| Flicker Noise | |
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| |
| |
| Environmental Noise | |
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| |
| |
| Sources of Noise in Low-Level Measurements | |
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| |
| |
| Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Coupling to AC Signals | |
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| |
| |
| Proper Grounding (Common Impedance Coupling) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Noise Reduction Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hardware Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Software Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Digital Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Digital Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Binary Number System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Truth Tables | |
| |
| |
| |
| Logic Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Logic Convention | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Logic Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| The And Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Or Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Invertor (Not) Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Nand (Not-And) Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Nor Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Exclusive-Or (Ex-Or) Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Inhibit Gate | |
| |
| |
| |
| Logic Families | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) | |
| |
| |
| |
| CMOS Logic Families | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Integrated Circuit Logic Gates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Categories of IC's Based on Packing Density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Typical Digital Integrated Circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flip-Flops | |
| |
| |
| |
| Counters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Registers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multiplexer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Demultiplexer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Encoders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Decoders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tri-state Logic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semiconductor Memories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Random Access Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Read-Only Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microprocessor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microcontrollers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Converters | |
| |
| |
| |
| A/D Converters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Key Parameters in A/D Converters and their Selection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Acquisition Systems for Analytical Instruments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computer-Based Analytical Instruments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computers in Analytical Laboratories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Digital Computer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Off-Line/On-Line Computers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Digital Computers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microcomputers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dedicated Microcomputers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Components of a Microcomputer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microcomputer Unit | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Video Display Unit | |
| |
| |
| |
| Keyboard | |
| |
| |
| |
| Controllers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Storage Systems for Microcomputers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Printers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plotters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computer Software | |
| |
| |
| |
| System Software | |
| |
| |
| |
| Application Software | |
| |
| |
| |
| Software Creation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Connecting Laboratory Instruments to Computers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Interfaces | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analog Interfaces | |
| |
| |
| |
| Digital I/O Interfaces | |
| |
| |
| |
| Serial ASCII Interface | |
| |
| |
| |
| IEEE-488 Standard Interface (HPIB, GPIB) | |
| |
| |
| |
| LAN Communication Using TCP/IP | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |