| |
| |
| Contributors | |
| |
| |
| Foreword | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of Laser Diode Degradation Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laser Diode Fundamentals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laser structures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screening Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aging tests and enhancement factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screening the bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screening packaged bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Degradation Modes | |
| |
| |
| |
| General description | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rapid degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gradual degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Catastrophic degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spatial location of the degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterization Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Preview of characterization techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Light-emitting techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Micro-Raman | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermoreflectance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photocurrent | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deep-level transient spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron-beam-induced current | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transmission Electron Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analytic probes: AES and EDX | |
| |
| |
| |
| Device Processing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Facet Degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| COD mechanism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Al-based lasers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Al-free lasers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparative Degradation among Different Lasers | |
| |
| |
| |
| InGaAsP/InGaP | |
| |
| |
| |
| InGaAsP/InP lasers | |
| |
| |
| |
| AlGaAs/GaAs | |
| |
| |
| |
| InGaAs/AlGaAs | |
| |
| |
| |
| External Degradation | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strain Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| General Overview of the Chapter | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of theory discussion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Description of a theoretical approach: Basic details | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quantum-confined Stark effect and excitonic effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Model of packaging-induced strain | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intrinsic strain and the overall strain configuration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Piecewise linearity of transition-energy shifts with strain | |
| |
| |
| |
| Results of the theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of theory with experiment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polarized Photoluminescence (DOP, ROP) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Band structure and polarization of luminescence | |
| |
| |
| |
| DOP and strain | |
| |
| |
| |
| ROP | |
| |
| |
| |
| Apparatus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Calibration constant C[subscript epsiv] | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurements on lasers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Micro-Photoluminescence ([micro]-PL) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detailed analysis of the PL line shape-experimental | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implementation of the [micro]-PL technique for the measurement of packaging-induced strain profiles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Some examples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary of [micro]-PL | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photocurrent Spectroscopy (PCS) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physics of photocurrent generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instrumentation for photocurrent measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Techniques related to photocurrent spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strain analysis by photocurrent spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Defect analysis by photocurrent spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| The interplay of strain and defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary of PCS | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laser Facet Inspection by Imaging Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Photo- and Electroluminescence Microscopy and Spectroscopically Resolved Photo- and Electroluminescence Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photo- and electroluminescence microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spectroscopic PLM and ELM | |
| |
| |
| |
| Near-Field Observation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of near-field patterns and spectra of individual emitters in laser bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis of near-field patterns and emission spectra of individual emitters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spectral analysis of emitters to determine position and scattering strength of intracavity defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cathodoluminescence Imaging | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single emitters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laser bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Some hypotheses about the formation of the V defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| |
| PLM | |
| |
| |
| |
| ELM | |
| |
| |
| |
| CLI | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Failure Prediction of High-Power Laser Bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aging of Single Emitters and Extrapolation to Bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to bar aging | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single-emitter aging as a bar-characterization tool | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influence of temperature and optical power | |
| |
| |
| |
| Influence of stress and mounting: Extrapolation of single-emitter results to bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aging signatures of particular defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evaluation of Various Screening Methods for High-Power Laser Bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stress measurement and stress impact on reliability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Observation of defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| The by-emitter degradation analysis method | |
| |
| |
| |
| Examples of successful failure prediction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusion on Best Screening and Failure Prediction Methods | |
| |
| |
| Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reduction of External Stresses by Improved Packaging Techniques Konstantin Boucke and Christian Scholz | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design and Fabrication of High-Performance, Expansion-Matched Heat Sinks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Materials selection and basic design rules | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modeling of expansion-matched heat sinks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fabrication of WCu- and Mo-based expansion-matched heat sinks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Characterization and Testing of Expansion-Matched Heat Sinks | |
| |
| |
| |
| CTE measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal resistance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flow rate and pressure drop | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reduction of the Stress Level in Expansion-Matched Packaged Laser Bars | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Degradation Modes and Related Defects in High-Power Laser Bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Degradation Signatures Occurring in High-Power Laser Bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of severe degradation signatures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Observation of V defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Observation of facet contamination | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary: Classification of observed degradation signatures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Defect Signatures of Degradation Modes | |
| |
| |
| |
| General remarks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Catastrophic degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rapid degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gradual degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Packaging-Induced Stress and Its Evolution during Device Operation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Interplay between Stress and Defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of microscopic defects observed | |
| |
| |
| |
| Correlation between stresses and defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aging Scenarios | |
| |
| |
| |
| The observation of a strain threshold for device degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The thermal runaway model for compressively strained bars | |
| |
| |
| |
| Device degradation during low-frequency pulsed operation | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Materials Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Index | |