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| To the Instructor | |
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| To the Student | |
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| Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment | |
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| Science Is a Way of Thinking | |
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| Asking Questions | |
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| Science and Art | |
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| Acquiring Knowledge | |
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| Tenacity | |
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| Intuition | |
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| Authority | |
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| Rationalism | |
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| Empiricism | |
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| Science | |
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| Emergence of Science | |
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| Early Civilization | |
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| Greek Science | |
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| Medieval Science | |
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| The Scientific Revolution | |
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| The History of Psychology | |
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| The Science of Psychology | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Review Exercises | |
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| Research Is a Process of Inquiry | |
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| A Process of Inquiry | |
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| Basic Assumptions of Science | |
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| Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs | |
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| Conceptual Models in Science | |
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| Inductive and Deductive Thinking | |
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| Models and Theories in Science | |
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| A Model of the Research Process | |
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| Phases of Research | |
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| Levels of Constraint | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Review Exercises | |
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| The Starting Point: Asking Questions | |
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| Asking Questions | |
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| Pursuing One's Own Personal Interests | |
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| Following Up on the Work of Others | |
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| Applied and Basic Research | |
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| Refining Questions for Research | |
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| Types of Variables in Research | |
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| Classifying Variables Based on Their Nature | |
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| Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research | |
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| Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables | |
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| Research Ethics | |
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| Ethical Guides for Human Research | |
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| Ethical Principles in Research with Animals | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Review Exercises | |
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| Data and the Nature of Measurement | |
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| Research Variables | |
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| Measurement | |
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| Scales of Measurement | |
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| Nominal Scales | |
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| Ordinal Scales | |
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| Interval Scales | |
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| Ratio Scales | |
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| Measuring and Controlling Variables | |
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| Measurement Error | |
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| Operational Definitions | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Effective Range | |
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| Validity | |
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| Scale Attenuation Effects | |
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| The Need for Objective Measurement | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Review Exercises | |
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| Statistical Analysis of Data | |
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| Individual Differences and Statistical Procedures | |
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| Descriptive Statistics | |
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| Frequency Distributions | |
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| Graphical Representation of Data | |
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| Summary Statistics | |
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| Inferential Statistics | |
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| Populations and Samples | |
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| The Null Hypothesis | |
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| Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels | |
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| Type I and Type II Errors | |
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| Testing for Mean Differences | |
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| The Power of a Statistical Test | |
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| Statistical versus Practical Significance | |
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| Effect Size | |
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| Meta-Analysis | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Review Exercises | |
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| Field Research: I. Naturalistic Observation, Case-Study Research, and Survey Research | |
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| The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research | |
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| Examples of Naturalistic Observation | |
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| Examples of Case-Study Research | |
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| The Value of Low-Constraint Methods | |
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| Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research | |
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| Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research | |
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| Problem Statements and Hypotheses in Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Research | |
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| Using Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Methods | |
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| Making Observations | |
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| Ethical Issues | |
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| Sampling of Participants | |
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| Sampling of Situations | |
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| Sampling of Behaviors | |
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| Evaluating and Interpreting Data | |
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| Limitations of Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Methods | |
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| Poor Representativeness | |
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| Poor Replicability | |
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| Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research: The Ex Post Facto Fallacy | |
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| Limitations of the Observer | |
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| |
| Going Beyond the Data | |
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| Survey Research | |
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| Types of Surveys | |
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| Steps in Survey Research | |
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| The Form of the Survey Instrument | |
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| Developing the Survey Instrument | |
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| The Participants in a Survey: Populations and Samples | |
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| Research Design of Surveys | |
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| |
| Chapter Summary | |
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| |
| Review Exercises | |
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| |
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| Correlational and Differential Methods of Research | |
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| Correlational Research Methods | |
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| Differential Research Methods | |
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| |
| Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research | |
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| |
| Artifacts and Confounding Variables | |
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| |
| What Makes Differential Research Higher-Constraint Than Correlational Research? | |
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| |
| When to Use Correlational and Differential Research | |
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| |
| Conducting Correlational Research | |
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| Problem Statements for Correlational Research | |
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| |
| Measuring the Variables | |
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| Sampling | |
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| |
| Analyzing the Data | |
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| |
| Interpreting the Correlation | |
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| |
| Conducting Differential Research | |
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| |
| Problem Statements for Differential Research | |
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| |
| Measuring the Variables | |
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| |
| Selecting Appropriate Control Groups | |
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| |
| Sampling | |
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| |
| Analyzing the Data | |
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| |
| Interpreting the Data | |
| |
| |
| Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research | |
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| |
| Problems in Determining Causation | |
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| |
| Confounding Variables | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
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| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity | |
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| |
| Hypothesis Testing | |
| |
| |
| Starting the Research with an Initial Idea | |
| |
| |
| Statement of the Problem | |
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| |
| Operational Definitions | |
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| |
| Research Hypothesis | |
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| |
| The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis | |
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| |
| Testing the Research Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| Validity and Threats to Validity | |
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| |
| Statistical Validity | |
| |
| |
| Construct Validity | |
| |
| |
| External Validity | |
| |
| |
| Internal Validity | |
| |
| |
| Major Confounding Variables | |
| |
| |
| Maturation | |
| |
| |
| History | |
| |
| |
| Testing | |
| |
| |
| Instrumentation | |
| |
| |
| Regression to the Mean | |
| |
| |
| Selection | |
| |
| |
| Attrition | |
| |
| |
| Diffusion of Treatment | |
| |
| |
| Sequence Effects | |
| |
| |
| Subject and Experimenter Effects | |
| |
| |
| Subject Effects | |
| |
| |
| Experimenter Effects | |
| |
| |
| Validity, Control, and Constraint | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity | |
| |
| |
| Threats to Validity | |
| |
| |
| General Control Procedures | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of the Setting | |
| |
| |
| Response Measurement | |
| |
| |
| Replication | |
| |
| |
| Control Over Subject and Experimenter Effects | |
| |
| |
| Single- and Double-Blind Procedures | |
| |
| |
| Automation | |
| |
| |
| Using Objective Measures | |
| |
| |
| Multiple Observers | |
| |
| |
| Using Deception | |
| |
| |
| Control Through Participant Selection and Assignment | |
| |
| |
| Participant Selection | |
| |
| |
| Participant Assignment | |
| |
| |
| Control Through Experimental Design | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Control of Variance Through Experimental Design: Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Design | |
| |
| |
| Variance | |
| |
| |
| Forms of Variance | |
| |
| |
| Controlling Variance in Research | |
| |
| |
| Nonexperimental Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Ex Post Facto Studies | |
| |
| |
| Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies | |
| |
| |
| Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies | |
| |
| |
| Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Designs: Testing One Independent Variable | |
| |
| |
| Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design | |
| |
| |
| Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design | |
| |
| |
| Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design | |
| |
| |
| Solomon's Four-Group Design | |
| |
| |
| Statistical Analyses of Completely Randomized Designs | |
| |
| |
| t-Test | |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Variance | |
| |
| |
| Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA | |
| |
| |
| Other Experimental Designs | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Control of Variance Through Experimental Design: Single-Variable, Correlated-Groups Designs | |
| |
| |
| Correlated-Groups Designs | |
| |
| |
| Within-Subjects Design | |
| |
| |
| Using Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
| Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
| Strengths and Weakness of Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
| Matched-Subjects Design | |
| |
| |
| Using Matched-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
| Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
| Strengths and Weakness of Matched-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
| Single-Subject Designs | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Control of Variance Through Experimental Design: Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
| Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
| Main Effects and Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
| An Example: Children's Dark-Fears Study | |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
| Variations of Basic Factorial Design | |
| |
| |
| Within-Subjects (Repeated-Measures) Factorial | |
| |
| |
| Mixed Designs | |
| |
| |
| ANOVA: A Postscript | |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) | |
| |
| |
| Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Field Research: II. A Second Look at Research in Natural Settings | |
| |
| |
| Conducting Field Research | |
| |
| |
| Reasons for Doing Field Research | |
| |
| |
| Difficulties in Field Research | |
| |
| |
| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
| |
| |
| Nonequivalent Control-Group Design | |
| |
| |
| Interrupted Time-Series Design | |
| |
| |
| Single-Subject Designs | |
| |
| |
| Reversal Design (ABA Design) | |
| |
| |
| Multiple Baseline Design | |
| |
| |
| Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design | |
| |
| |
| Program Evaluation | |
| |
| |
| Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research | |
| |
| |
| Issues of Control | |
| |
| |
| Typical Program Evaluation Designs | |
| |
| |
| Program Evaluation: An Example | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Final Preparations Before Data Collection | |
| |
| |
| Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures | |
| |
| |
| An Initial Example | |
| |
| |
| A Decision-Tree Model | |
| |
| |
| Secondary Analyses | |
| |
| |
| Caveats and Disclaimers | |
| |
| |
| Pre-Data Check | |
| |
| |
| |
| Initial Problem Definition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clarity of the Research Hypothesis (or Hypotheses) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Statistical Analysis Procedures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation (for Experimental Research) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adequacy of the Dependent Measures | |
| |
| |
| |
| Are All Controls in Place? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Participants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Preparation of the Setting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures | |
| |
| |
| Chapter Summary | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Research Methodology: An Evolving Discipline | |
| |
| |
| New Directions in Research Methodology | |
| |
| |
| The Evolution of Research Questions and Methods | |
| |
| |
| New Statistical Methods | |
| |
| |
| The Impact of Other Disciplines | |
| |
| |
| Multidisciplinary Research | |
| |
| |
| Moving Research Out of the Laboratory | |
| |
| |
| The Impact of Computers | |
| |
| |
| Science: An Interaction Between Empiricism and Rationalism | |
| |
| |
| Review Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Using the CD and Web Supplements | |
| |
| |
| Resources Available on the CD and Web Site | |
| |
| |
| CD | |
| |
| |
| Web Site | |
| |
| |
| Accessing the CD Material | |
| |
| |
| Using a Web Browser | |
| |
| |
| Table of Contents and Index | |
| |
| |
| Accessing Material Referenced in the Text | |
| |
| |
| Using the Study Guide | |
| |
| |
| Using SPSS for Windows | |
| |
| |
| Accessing the Web Material | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Writing a Research Report: APA Publication Style | |
| |
| |
| Structure of a Research Article | |
| |
| |
| Writing the Research Report | |
| |
| |
| Using Levels of Headings to Organize | |
| |
| |
| Sections of a Research Report | |
| |
| |
| Writing Style | |
| |
| |
| Appendix Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conducting Library Research | |
| |
| |
| Using the Library | |
| |
| |
| Library Resources | |
| |
| |
| The Reference Librarian | |
| |
| |
| How Research Materials Are Organized | |
| |
| |
| Primary Sources | |
| |
| |
| Secondary Sources | |
| |
| |
| Finding the Relevant Research | |
| |
| |
| Abstracting Services | |
| |
| |
| Subject or Keyword Services | |
| |
| |
| Literature Citation Indexes | |
| |
| |
| Search Strategies | |
| |
| |
| Searching by Topic | |
| |
| |
| Searching Backward | |
| |
| |
| Searching Forward | |
| |
| |
| Appendix Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Random Numbers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computerized Statistical Analyses | |
| |
| |
| Organizing and Entering the Data | |
| |
| |
| Coding Data Before Entry | |
| |
| |
| Principles of the Windows as Environment | |
| |
| |
| Entering Data and Defining the Variables | |
| |
| |
| Data Analysis Using SPSS for Windows | |
| |
| |
| Descriptive Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Inferential Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Appendix Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selected Answers to Exercises | |
| |
| |
| Glossary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Name Index | |
| |
| |
| Subject Index | |