Contributors | p. xi |
Preface | p. xiii |
Fundamentals of the Fire Hazards of Materials | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Fundamentals of Combustion | p. 2 |
Stoichiometry | p. 3 |
Thermochemistry | p. 7 |
Flame Temperatures | p. 12 |
Gases, Mists, and Dusts | p. 16 |
Flammability Limits for Gases and Vapors | p. 16 |
Ignition Energy | p. 19 |
Flame Speed | p. 20 |
Ignition of Mists and Dusts | p. 20 |
Liquids | p. 20 |
Fire Point | p. 21 |
Vapor Pressure | p. 22 |
Flammability Limits of Liquids | p. 23 |
Liquid Mixtures | p. 23 |
Burning Rate | p. 24 |
Solids | p. 26 |
Flaming Ignition of Solid Materials | p. 29 |
Critical Heat Flux and Effective Ignition Temperature | p. 35 |
Pyrolysis and Burning Rates | p. 37 |
Flame Spread | p. 38 |
Self-Heating and Smoldering Combustion | p. 41 |
Effects of Fire Retardants | p. 42 |
Smoke Production | p. 42 |
Vision Obscuration | p. 43 |
Toxicity of Combustion Products | p. 45 |
Nonthermal Damage | p. 46 |
Enclosure Effects | p. 46 |
Summary | p. 48 |
References | p. 48 |
Materials Specifications, Standards, and Testing | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Materials Characteristics | p. 3 |
Softening and Melting Behaviors of Materials | p. 4 |
Vaporization, Decomposition, and Charring Behaviors of Materials | p. 5 |
Ignition Behavior of Materials | p. 8 |
Flame Spread, Fire Growth, and Burning Behavior of Materials | p. 13 |
Popular Standard Test Methods for the Burning Behavior of Materials | p. 15 |
ASTM D 5865 and ISO 1716: Test Method for Gross Heat of Complete Combustion | p. 16 |
ASTM E 136 and ISO 1182: Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750 | p. 16 |
ASTM E 906, ASTM E 2058, and ASTM E 1354 and ISO 5660: Standard Test Methods for Release Rates of Material Vapors, Heat, and Chemical Compounds | p. 17 |
ASTM E 119: Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials--The Fire Endurance Test | p. 24 |
ASTM E 1529: Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires on Structural Members and Assemblies | p. 25 |
Popular Standard Test Methods for Flame Spread and Fire Growth | p. 26 |
prEN ISO and FDIS 11925-2: Reaction to Fire Tests for Building Products--Part 2: Ignitability when Subjected to Direct Impingement of Flame | p. 26 |
UL 94: Standard Test Methodology for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances | p. 27 |
ASTM D 2863 (ISO 4589): Test Methodology for Limited Oxygen Index | p. 28 |
ASTM E 162 (D 3675): Standard Test Method for Surface Flammability Using a Radiant Energy Source | p. 30 |
ASTM E 1321 (ISO 5658): Standard Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties (LIFT) | p. 32 |
ASTM E 648 (ISO 9239-1): Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source | p. 34 |
ASTM E 84: Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials | p. 36 |
FM Global Approval Class 4910 (NFPA 318): Standard Test Methods for Clean Room Materials for the Semiconductor Industry | p. 38 |
ASTM E 603: Standard Guide for Room Fire Experiments | p. 39 |
Nomenclature | p. 49 |
References | p. 51 |
Plastics and Rubber | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Polymeric Materials | p. 1 |
Monomers, Polymers, and Copolymers | p. 1 |
Polymer Architectures | p. 3 |
Commercial Materials | p. 7 |
Thermodynamic Quantities | p. 8 |
The Burning Process | p. 15 |
The Fire Triangle | p. 15 |
Chemical Changes During Burning | p. 16 |
Fire Behavior of Plastics | p. 28 |
Ignition | p. 28 |
Steady Burning | p. 34 |
Unsteady Burning | p. 40 |
Definition of Terms | p. 44 |
References | p. 46 |
Flame Retardants for Plastics | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Overview of the Flame Retardants Industry | p. 2 |
Mechanisms of Flame Retardancy | p. 5 |
Classes of Commercial Flame Retardants | p. 7 |
Hydrated Minerals | p. 7 |
Halogenated Materials | p. 9 |
Antimony Trioxide | p. 21 |
Phosphorus Additives | p. 23 |
Intumescent Flame-Retardant Systems | p. 36 |
Polymer Families--Selection of Flame Retardant | p. 36 |
Polypropylene | p. 38 |
Polyethylene | p. 44 |
Styrenics | p. 44 |
ABS | p. 48 |
Polycarbonate | p. 49 |
PC/ABS Blends | p. 50 |
Nylon | p. 58 |
Thermoplastic Polyesters | p. 66 |
Polyvinyl Chloride | p. 69 |
Thermosets | p. 72 |
Elastomers/Rubber | p. 73 |
Nanocomposites | p. 76 |
Layered Silicates | p. 76 |
Polymer Nanocomposite Structures | p. 77 |
Preparation Methods | p. 77 |
Flame-Retardant Properties of Nanocomposites | p. 78 |
Mechanism of Flame Retardancy in Nanocomposites | p. 80 |
References | p. 84 |
Fibers and Fabrics | p. 1 |
The Role of Fabrics in Fire Protection | p. 1 |
Fibers and Their Properties | p. 1 |
Materials from Which Fibers Are Formed | p. 1 |
Forms of Fibers Available | p. 1 |
Fiber Properties | p. 2 |
Flammability Characteristics | p. 2 |
Flame Retardants | p. 5 |
Fabric Types | p. 7 |
Flammability of Fabrics | p. 7 |
Characteristics of Burning Fabrics | p. 7 |
Thermal Performance Tests for Fabrics | p. 8 |
Performance Standards | p. 19 |
Applications--Protective Clothing | p. 23 |
Burn Injuries | p. 24 |
Flash Fires | p. 25 |
Structural and Wildlands Fires | p. 26 |
Electric Arcs | p. 32 |
Molten Metals | p. 35 |
Soiling and Cleaning of Protective Clothing | p. 36 |
Applications--Furnishings | p. 36 |
Structures | p. 37 |
Transportation | p. 45 |
Challenges for the Future | p. 47 |
Acknowledgments | p. 48 |
References | p. 48 |
Appendix | p. 51 |
Structural Materials | p. 1 |
Structural Materials Used in Construction | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Construction Materials | p. 1 |
Development of Fire Resistance Testing | p. 2 |
Historical Fire Events | p. 2 |
Early Fire Resistance Test Procedures | p. 3 |
Standard Fire Resistance Tests | p. 4 |
Test Equipment | p. 7 |
Failure Criteria | p. 7 |
Special Hazard Resistance Tests ("High-Rise" Curves) | p. 10 |
Structural Materials and Fire | p. 11 |
Reaction of Structural Materials to Fire | p. 11 |
Protection of Structural Materials from Fire | p. 22 |
Fire-Resistive Materials | p. 23 |
Fire-Resistive Systems | p. 28 |
Determination of Fire Resistance by Testing | p. 32 |
Steel Construction | p. 32 |
Concrete Construction | p. 42 |
Determination of Fire Resistance by Calculation | p. 43 |
Steel Construction | p. 44 |
Concrete Construction | p. 60 |
Application of Fire Resistance Ratings | p. 61 |
References | p. 61 |
Wood and Wood Products | p. 1 |
Units | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Wood | p. 1 |
Forestry | p. 1 |
Wood and Carbon | p. 2 |
Wood and Fire | p. 2 |
Wood as a Construction Material (U.S. Customary Units) | p. 2 |
Sawn Timber | p. 2 |
Panel Products | p. 3 |
Engineered Wood Products | p. 4 |
Other Materials | p. 5 |
Physical and Chemical Characteristics (S.I. Units) | p. 6 |
Botanical Categories | p. 6 |
Physical Structure | p. 6 |
Moisture | p. 7 |
Chemical Composition | p. 7 |
Thermal Decomposition and Pyrolysis | p. 8 |
Fire-Retardant Treatments | p. 9 |
Thermal Properties (S.I. Units) | p. 10 |
Wood and Char | p. 10 |
Other Materials | p. 23 |
Mechanical Properties (U.S. Customary Units) | p. 24 |
Properties at Normal Temperatures | p. 24 |
Properties at Elevated Temperatures | p. 25 |
Reaction to Fire (S.I. Units) | p. 27 |
Ignition | p. 27 |
Heat Release and Charring Rate | p. 29 |
Products of Combustion | p. 35 |
Surface Flame Spread | p. 36 |
Fire Resistance (U.S. Customary Units) | p. 40 |
Exposed Wood Members | p. 40 |
Protected Wood-Frame Construction | p. 48 |
References | p. 52 |
Liquids and Chemicals | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Accidents Involving Fluids Stored in Warehouses | p. 2 |
Accidents Involving Release of Fluids Contained in Vessels, Tanks, and Pipes | p. 4 |
Properties Associated with the Ignition, Combustion, and Flame Spread Behaviors of Fluids | p. 5 |
Vaporization and Boiling Characteristics of Fluids | p. 5 |
Ignition Characteristics of Fluids | p. 10 |
Flash Points of Fluids | p. 11 |
Autoignition Temperature of Fluids | p. 12 |
Hazard Classification of Fluids Based on Ignition Resistance | p. 13 |
Flammability Characteristics of Fluids | p. 16 |
Combustion Characteristics of Fluids | p. 18 |
Release Rate of Fluid Vapors in Pool Fires | p. 20 |
Heat Release Rate | p. 24 |
Release Rates of Products | p. 35 |
Smoke Point | p. 37 |
Nomenclature | p. 38 |
References | p. 40 |
Materials in Military Applications | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Composities in Military Applications | p. 2 |
Polymer Composities | p. 6 |
Conventional and Advanced Matrix Resins | p. 7 |
Fabrication Techniques | p. 9 |
Cost of Composite Systems | p. 10 |
Fire Threat | p. 11 |
Polymer Composites and Fire | p. 12 |
Fire Requirements and Regulations for Polymer Composites | p. 13 |
Infrastructure and Fire Regulations | p. 16 |
Ground Transportation and Fire Regulations | p. 19 |
Air Transportation and Fire Regulations | p. 19 |
Commercial Marine Transportation and Fire Regulations | p. 20 |
Military Use of Composites and Fire Regulations | p. 21 |
Fire Performance and Test Methods for Composites | p. 21 |
Surface Flammability | p. 22 |
Smoke and Combustion Gas Generation | p. 22 |
Fire Growth | p. 24 |
Fire Resistance | p. 37 |
Structural Integrity Under Fire | p. 51 |
Passive Fire Protection | p. 60 |
Active Fire Protection | p. 76 |
References | p. 76 |
Index | p. 1 |
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