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Preface | |
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The Science of Plant Ecology | |
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Ecology as a Science | |
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The Genesis of Scientific Knowledge | |
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Objectivity, Subjectivity, Choice, and Chance in Scientific Research | |
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Experiments: The Heart of Research | |
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Testing Theories | |
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Specific Results versus General Understanding | |
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Scale and Heterogeneity | |
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The Structure and History of Plant Ecology | |
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The Individual and its Environment | |
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Photosynthesis and the Light Environment | |
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The Process of Photosynthesis | |
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Photosynthetic Rates | |
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Limitations Caused by Light Levels | |
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Limitations on Carbon Uptake | |
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Variation in Photosynthetic Rates within and between Habitats | |
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Photorespiration | |
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The Three Photosynthetic Pathways | |
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C[subscript 3] Photosynthesis | |
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C[subscript 4] Photosynthesis | |
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Stable Isotopes and Photosynthesis | |
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Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM Photosynthesis) | |
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Evolution of the Three Photosynthetic Pathways | |
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Phylogeny of the Photosynthetic Pathways | |
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Photosynthesis Through Evolutionary Time | |
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Growth Form, Phenology, and Distribution of C[subscript 3], C[subscript 4], and CAM Plants | |
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Growth Forms and Habitats | |
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Phenology | |
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Geographic Distributions | |
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Adaptations to the Light Environment | |
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Sun and Shade Leaves | |
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Species' Adaptations to High and Low Light Habitats | |
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Leaf Iridescence and Structural Coloration | |
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Do Sun and Shade Adaptations Exist within Species? | |
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Day Length: Responses and Adaptations | |
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Water Relations and Energy Balance | |
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Adapting to Life on Land | |
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Water Potential | |
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The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum | |
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Transpiration and the Control of Water Loss | |
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Strategies for Coping with Water Availability Conditions | |
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Whole-Plant Adaptations to Low Water Availability | |
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Physiological Adaptations | |
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Anatomical and Morphological Adaptations | |
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The Energy Balance of Leaves | |
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Radiant Energy | |
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Why the Sky Is Blue and the Setting Sun Is Red | |
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Conduction and Convection | |
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Latent Heat Exchange | |
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Putting It All Together: Leaf Temperature | |
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Soils, Mineral Nutrition, and Belowground Interactions | |
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Soil Composition and Structure | |
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Soil Texture | |
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Soil pH | |
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Horizons and Profiles | |
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Origins and Classification | |
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Organic Matter and the Role of Organisms | |
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Water Movement within Soils | |
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Plant Mineral Nutrition | |
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Nitrogen in Plants and Soils | |
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Biological Nitrogen Fixation | |
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Symbioses and Mutualisms | |
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Phosphorus | |
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Mycorrhizae | |
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Major Groups of Mycorrhizae | |
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The Role of Mycorrhizae in Plant Phosphorus Nutrition | |
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Other Functions of Mycorrhizae | |
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Orchids and Their Mycorrhizal Associations | |
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Mutualism or Parasitism? | |
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Plant Interconnections via Mycorrhizal Fungi | |
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Evolution and Population Biology | |
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Processes of Evolution | |
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Natural Selection | |
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Variation and Natural Selection | |
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The Components of Natural Selection | |
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Phenotypic Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity | |
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Heritability | |
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Resemblance among Relatives | |
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Partitioning Phenotypic Variation | |
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Genotype-Environment Interactions | |
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Gene-Environment Covariation | |
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Patterns of Adaptation | |
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Levels of Selection | |
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Other Evolutionary Processes | |
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Processes that Increase Variation | |
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Processes that Decrease Variation | |
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Variation among Populations | |
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Outcomes of Evolution | |
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Heavy-Metal Tolerance | |
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Ecotypes | |
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Adaptive Plasticity | |
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Selection in Structured Populations | |
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Frequency-Dependent Selection | |
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Group Selection | |
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Convergent Evolution | |
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Speciation | |
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Population Structure, Growth, and Decline | |
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Some Issues in the Study of Plant Population Growth | |
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Population Structure | |
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Some Population Structure Issues Special to Plants | |
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Sources of Population Structure | |
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Studying Population Growth and Decline | |
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Life Cycle Graphs | |
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Demography of an Endangered Cactus, Coryphantha Robbinsorum | |
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Matrix Models | |
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Analyzing Matrix Models | |
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Multiplying a Population Vector by a Matrix | |
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But Real Plants Live in Variable Environments | |
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Lifetime Reproduction: The Net Reproductive Rate | |
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Reproductive Value: The Contribution of Each Stage to Population Growth | |
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Partial Derivatives | |
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Sensitivity | |
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Elasticity | |
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Age and Stage Revisited | |
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Other Approaches to Modeling Plant Demography | |
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Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants | |
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Random Variation in Population Growth and Decline | |
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Causes of Random Variation | |
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Long-Term Growth Rates | |
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Studying Variable Population Growth | |
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Growth and Reproduction of Individuals | |
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Plant Growth | |
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Ecology of Growth | |
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Plant Architecture and Light Interception | |
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Growth of Clonal Plants | |
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Plant Reproduction | |
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Vegetative Reproduction | |
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Seeds Produced Asexually | |
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Sexual Life Cycles of Plants | |
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Pollination Ecology | |
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Wind Pollination | |
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Attracting Animal Visitors: Visual Displays | |
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Attracting Animal Visitors: Floral Odors and Acoustic Guides | |
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Limiting Unwanted Visits | |
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Pollination Syndromes | |
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Aquatic Plants and Pollination | |
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Specialized Plants and Pollinators | |
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Who Mates with Whom? | |
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Plant Gender | |
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Competition for Pollinators and among Pollen Grains | |
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Pollination Experiments | |
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Pollen Dispersal and Its Consequences | |
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Assortative Mating | |
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Understanding Plant Mating Systems | |
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The Ecology of Fruits and Seeds | |
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Seed Dispersal Patterns | |
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Seed Banks | |
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Plant Life Histories | |
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Size and Number of Seeds | |
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Life History Strategies | |
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Seed Germination | |
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Life Span | |
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r- and K-selection | |
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Grime's Triangular Model | |
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Demographic Life History Theory | |
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Reproductive Allocation | |
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Bet Hedging in a Variable Environment | |
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Difficulties in Measuring Trade-Offs | |
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Phenology: Within-Year Schedules of Growth and Reproduction | |
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Vegetative Phenology | |
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Evergreen versus Deciduous Habits | |
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Reproductive Phenology: Abiotic Factors | |
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Reproductive Phenology: Biotic Factors | |
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From Populations to Communities | |
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Competition | |
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Competition at the Level of Individuals | |
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Size and Density | |
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Mortality, Size, and Density | |
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Mechanisms of Competition | |
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Is Bigger Better? | |
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Apparent Competition | |
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Populations and Competition | |
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Competitive Hierarchies | |
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Quantifying Competition | |
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Experimental Methods for Studying Competition | |
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Greenhouse and Garden Experiments | |
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The Implications of How Competition is Measured | |
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Field Experiments | |
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Mechanisms of Interspecific Competition | |
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Resource-Based Competition | |
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Trade-Offs and Strategies | |
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Allelopathy | |
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Modeling Competition | |
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Two Equilibrium Approaches | |
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Patch-Based and Nonequilibrium Models | |
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Effects of Competition on Community Composition | |
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Competition along Environmental Gradients | |
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Conceptual Models of Competition in Habitats with Differing Productivities | |
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Experimental Evidence | |
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Evidence from Research Syntheses | |
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Resolution of Differing Results | |
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Herbivory and Plant-Pathogen Interactions | |
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Herbivory at the Level of Individuals | |
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Herbivory and Plant Populations | |
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Herbivory and Spatial Distribution of Plants | |
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Granivory | |
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Biological Control | |
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Effects of Herbivory at the Community Level | |
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Consequences of Herbivore Behavior | |
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Introduced and Domesticated Herbivores | |
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Effects of Native Herbivores | |
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Generality | |
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Plant Defenses | |
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Plant Physical Defenses | |
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Plant Secondary Chemistry | |
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Constitutive versus Induced Defenses | |
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Evolutionary Consequences of Plant-Herbivore Interactions | |
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Pathogens | |
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Responses of Individual Plants to Infection | |
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More Complex Interactions | |
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Community Properties | |
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What Is a Community? | |
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Communities, Taxa, Guilds, and Functional Groups | |
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The History of a Controversy | |
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A Modern Perspective on the Issues in Contention | |
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Are Communities Real? | |
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A Deeper Look at Some Definitions: Abiotic Factors and Emergent Properties | |
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Describing Communities | |
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Species Richness | |
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Diversity, Evenness, and Dominance | |
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Sampling Methods and Parameters for Describing Community Composition | |
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Physiognomy | |
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Long-Term Studies | |
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The Long-Term Ecological Research Network | |
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Disturbance and Succession | |
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Theories of the Causes of Succession | |
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Disturbance | |
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Gaps | |
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Fire | |
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Wind | |
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Water | |
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Animals | |
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Earthquakes and Volcanoes | |
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Disease | |
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Humans | |
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Colonization | |
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Determining the Nature of Succession | |
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Interaction between Methodology and Understanding | |
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Mechanisms Responsible for Successional Change | |
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The Predictability of Succession | |
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Primary Succession | |
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Climax Revisited | |
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Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity | |
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Dominance | |
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Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior? | |
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Abundance Curves | |
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Rarity and Commonness | |
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The Nature of Rarity | |
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Patterns of Rarity and Commonness | |
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Causes of Rarity and Commonness | |
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Invasive Species and Community Susceptibility | |
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Why Do Some Species Become Invasive? | |
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What Makes a Community Susceptible to Invasion? | |
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Abundance and Community Structure | |
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Productivity and Diversity | |
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Niche Differentiation, Environmental Heterogeneity, and Diversity | |
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Gaps, Disturbance, and Diversity | |
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Effects of Increasing Diversity | |
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Testing the Effects of Diversity on Ecosystems | |
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Diversity and Stability | |
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Regional Processes | |
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From Ecosystems to Landscapes | |
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Ecosystem Processes | |
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Biogeochemical Cycles: Quantifying Pools and Fluxes | |
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The Global Water Cycle | |
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Carbon in Ecosystems | |
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Decomposition and Soil Food Webs | |
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Productivity | |
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Methods for Estimating Productivity | |
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Carbon Storage | |
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Models of Ecosystem Carbon Cycles | |
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Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle at Ecosystem and Global Levels | |
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Nitrogen Fixation | |
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Other Sources of Nitrogen Input to Living Organisms | |
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Nitrogen Mineralization | |
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Denitrification and Leaching of Nitrogen | |
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Decomposition Rates and Nitrogen Immobilization | |
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Plant Uptake of Nitrogen | |
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Phosphorus in Terrestrial Ecosystems | |
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Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling and Plant Diversity | |
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Serpentine Soils | |
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Ecosystem Processes for Some Other Elements | |
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Sulfur | |
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Calcium | |
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Communities in Landscapes | |
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Comparing Communities | |
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Non-numerical Techniques | |
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Univariate Techniques | |
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Multivariate Techniques | |
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Landscape Patterns | |
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Ordination: Describing Patterns | |
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Determining Causes of Patterns | |
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Types of Data | |
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Classification | |
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Views on Continuous versus Discrete Landscapes | |
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Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality | |
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Landscape Diversity | |
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Differentiation Diversity | |
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Pattern Diversity | |
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Landscape Ecology | |
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Spatial Patterns | |
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Defining Patches | |
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Quantifying Patch Characteristics and Interrelationships | |
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Scale | |
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Definitions and Concepts | |
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Spatial and Ecological Scale | |
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Quantifying Aspects of Spatial Pattern and Scale | |
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Toward a Theoretical Basis for Landscape Patterns: Island Biogeography Theory | |
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Metapopulation Theory | |
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Metapopulation Models | |
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Metapopulation Patterns | |
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Landscape Ecology and Conservation | |
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Reserve Design | |
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Fragmentation | |
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Edges, Connectivity, and Nestedness | |
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Global Patterns and Processes | |
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Climate and Physiognomy | |
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Climate and Weather | |
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Temperature | |
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Short-Term Variation in Radiation and Temperature | |
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Long-Term Cycles | |
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Precipitation | |
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Global Patterns | |
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The Coriolis Effect | |
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Continental-Scale Patterns | |
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Seasonal Variation in Precipitation | |
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The El Nino Southern Oscillation | |
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Predictability and Long-Term Change | |
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Plant Physiognomy across the Globe | |
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Forests | |
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Tree Line | |
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Grasslands and Woodlands | |
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Shrublands and Deserts | |
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Biomes | |
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Categorizing Vegetation | |
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Moist Tropical Forests | |
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Tropical Rainforest | |
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Tropical Montane Forest | |
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Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands | |
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Tropical Deciduous Forest | |
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Thorn Forest | |
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Tropical Woodland | |
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Temperate Deciduous Forest | |
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Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands | |
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Temperate Rainforest | |
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Temperate Evergreen Forest | |
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Temperate Woodland | |
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Taiga | |
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Temperate Shrubland | |
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Grasslands | |
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Temperate Grassland | |
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Tropical Savanna | |
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Deserts | |
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Hot Desert | |
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Cold Desert | |
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Alpine and Arctic Vegetation | |
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Grassland and Shrubland | |
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Tundra | |
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Regional and Global Diversity | |
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Large-Scale Patterns of Diversity | |
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Levels of Explanation | |
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Explanations for Latitudinal Gradients | |
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Continental Differences | |
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Other Geographic Patterns | |
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Species Diversity and Patterns of Overlap | |
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Endemism, Centers of Diversification, and Isolation | |
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Relationships between Regional and Local Diversity | |
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The Fynbos and the Cape Region of South Africa | |
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Productivity and Scale | |
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Paleoecology | |
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The Paleozoic Era | |
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The Mesozoic Era | |
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The Dominance of Gymnosperms | |
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The Breakup of Pangaea and the Rise of the Angiosperms | |
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The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary | |
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The Cenozoic Era | |
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Paleoecology Methods | |
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The Recent Past | |
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At the Glacial Maximum | |
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Glacial Retreat | |
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Climate Fluctuations in the Recent Past | |
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Global Change: Humans and Plants | |
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Carbon and Plant-Atmosphere Interactions | |
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The Global Carbon Cycle | |
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Direct Effects of Increasing CO[subscript 2] on Plants | |
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Anthropogenic Global Climate Change | |
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The Greenhouse Effect | |
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Global Climate Change: Evidence | |
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Global Climate Change: Predictions | |
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Modeling Climate | |
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Biotic Consequences of Climate Change | |
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Anthropogenic Effects on the Global Carbon Cycle | |
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Deforestation | |
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Fossil Fuel Combustion | |
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Daily Human Activities and CO[subscript 2] Generation | |
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Acid Precipitation and Nitrogen Deposition | |
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Declining Global Biodiversity and Its Causes | |
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Habitat Fragmentation and Loss | |
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Invasive Species and Other Threats to Biodiversity | |
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Human Populations and Land Use Patterns | |
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A Ray of Hope? | |
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A Statistics Primer | |
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Data Description | |
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Estimating Accuracy | |
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Using and Reporting Statistics | |
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Photo Credits | |
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Glossary | |
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Literature Cited | |
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Index | |