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Getting Started | |
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Introduction to Research | |
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Behavioral Research | |
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Everyday Science Versus Empirical Research | |
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Relying on Our Intuition | |
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Discovering the Limitations of Using Intuition | |
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The Scientific Method | |
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Values Versus Facts in Scientific Research | |
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Basic and Applied Research | |
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The Importance of Studying Research Methods | |
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Evaluating Research Reports | |
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Conducting Research | |
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Thinking Critically About Research | |
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Research Designs: Three Approaches to Studying Behavior | |
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Descriptive Research: Assessing the Current State of Affairs | |
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Correlational Research: Seeking Relationships Among Variables | |
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Experimental Research: Understanding the Causes of Behavior | |
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The Selection of an Appropriate Method | |
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Current Research in The Behavioral Sciences: Preferences For Brands That Contain The Letters Of Our Own Name | |
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Developing the Research Hypothesis | |
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Getting Ideas | |
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Solving Important Real-World Problems | |
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Using Observation and Intuition | |
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Using Existing Research | |
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Doing a Literature Search | |
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Locating Sources of Information | |
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Conducting the Search | |
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Formalizing Ideas into Research Hypotheses | |
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Laws | |
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Theories | |
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The Research Hypothesis | |
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Ethics in Research | |
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What Is Ethical Research? | |
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Protecting Research Participants from Physical and Psychological Harm | |
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Types of Threats | |
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The Potential for Lasting Impact | |
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Providing Freedom of Choice | |
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Conducting Research Outside the Laboratory | |
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Securing Informed Consent | |
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Weighing Informed Consent Versus the Research Goals | |
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Maintaining Awareness of Power Differentials | |
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Avoiding Abuses of Power | |
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Respecting Participants' Privacy | |
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Honestly Describing the Nature and Use of the Research | |
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When Deception Is Necessary | |
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Simulation Studies: An Alternative to Deception | |
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The Consequences of Deception | |
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Debriefing | |
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Using Animals as Research Participants | |
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Ensuring that Research Is Ethical | |
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The Institutional Review Board | |
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The Researcher's Own Ethics | |
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Correctly and Honestly Reporting Research Results | |
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Measuring and Describing | |
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Measures | |
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Fundamentals of Measurement | |
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Operational Definition | |
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Converging Operations | |
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Conceptual and Measured Variables | |
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Nominal and Quantitative Variables | |
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Measurement Scales | |
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Self-Report Measures | |
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Free-Format Self-Report Measures | |
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Fixed-Format Self-Report Measures | |
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Reactivity as a Limitation in Self-Report Measures | |
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Behavioral Measures | |
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Nonreactive Measures | |
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Psychophysiological Measures | |
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Choosing a Measure | |
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Current Research in The Behavioral Sciences: The Hillyer-Jones Kinematics Scale Of Locomotion In Rats With Spinal Injuries | |
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Reliability and Validity | |
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Random and Systematic Error | |
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Reliability | |
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Test-Retest Reliability | |
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Reliability as Internal Consistency | |
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Interrater Reliability | |
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Construct Validity | |
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Face Validity | |
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Content Validity | |
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Convergent and Discriminant Validity | |
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Criterion Validity | |
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Improving the Reliability and Validity of Measured Variables | |
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Comparing Reliability and Validity | |
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Current Research in The Behavioral Sciences: Using Multiple Measured Variables To Assess The Conceptual Variable Of Panic Symptoms | |
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Surveys and Sampling | |
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Surveys | |
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Interviews | |
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Questionnaires | |
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Use of Existing Survey Data | |
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Sampling and Generalization | |
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Definition of the Population | |
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Probability Sampling | |
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Sampling Bias and Nonprobability Sampling | |
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Summarizing the Sample Data | |
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Frequency Distributions | |
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Descriptive Statistics | |
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Sample Size and the Margin of Error | |
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Current Research in The Behavioral Sciences: Assessing Americans' Attitudes Toward Healthcare | |
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Naturalistic Methods | |
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Naturalistic Research | |
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Observational Research | |
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The Unacknowledged Participant | |
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The Acknowledged Participant | |
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Acknowledged and Unacknowledged Observers | |
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Case Studies | |
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Systematic Coding Methods | |
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Deciding What to Observe | |
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Deciding How to Record Observations | |
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Choosing Sampling Strategies | |
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Archival Research | |
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Current Research in the Behavioral Sciences: Detecting Psychopathy From Thin Slices of Behavior | |
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Testing Research Hypotheses | |
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Hypothesis Testing and Inferential Statistics | |
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Probability and Inferential Statistics | |
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Sampling Distributions and Hypothesis Testing | |
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The Null Hypothesis | |
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Testing for Statistical Significance | |
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Reduction of Inferential Errors | |
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Type 1 Errors | |
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Type 2 Errors | |
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Statistical Power | |
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The Tradeoff Between Type 1 and Type 2 Errors | |
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Statistical Significance and the Effect Size | |
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Practical Uses of the Effect Size Statistic | |
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Correlational Research Designs | |
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Associations Among Quantitative Variables | |
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Linear Relationships | |
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Nonlinear Relationships | |
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Statistical Assessment of Relationships | |
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The Pearson Correlation Coefficient | |
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The Chi-Square Statistic | |
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Multiple Regression | |
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Correlation and Causality | |
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Interpreting Correlations | |
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Using Correlational Data to Test Causal Models | |
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When Correlational Designs Are Appropriate | |
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Current Research in The Behavioral Sciences: Moral Conviction, Religiosity, and Trust in Authority | |
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Experimental Research: One-Way Designs | |
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Demonstration of Causality | |
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Association | |
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Temporal Priority | |
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Control of Common-Causal Variables | |
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One-Way Experimental Designs | |
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The Experimental Manipulation | |
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Selection of the Dependent Variable | |
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Variety and Number of Levels | |
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Analysis of Variance | |
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Hypothesis Testing in Experimental Designs | |
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Between-Groups and Within-Groups Variance Estimates | |
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The ANOVA Summary Table | |
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Repeated-Measures Designs | |
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Advantages of Repeated-Measures Designs | |
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Disadvantages of Repeated-Measures Designs | |
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When to Use a Repeated-Measures Design | |
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Presentation of Experiment Results | |
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When Experiments Are Appropriate | |
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Current Research In The Behavioral Sciences: Does Social Exclusion "Hurt?" | |
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Designing and Interpreting Research | |
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Experimental Research: Factorial Designs | |
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Factorial Experimental Designs | |
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The Two-Way Design | |
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Main Effects | |
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Interactions and Simple Effects | |
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The ANOVA Summary Table | |
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Understanding Interactions | |
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Patterns of Observed Means | |
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Interpretation of Main Effects When Interactions Are Present | |
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More Factorial Designs | |
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The Three-Way Design | |
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Factorial Designs Using Repeated Measures | |
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Comparison of the Condition Means in Experimental Designs | |
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Pairwise Comparisons | |
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Complex Comparisons | |
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Current Research in the Behavioral Sciences: Post-decisional Dissonance Reduction in Canadian and Japanese Samples | |
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Experimental Control and Internal Validity | |
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Threats to the Validity of Research | |
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Experimental Control | |
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Extraneous Variables | |
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Confounding Variables | |
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Control of Extraneous Variables | |
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Limited-Population Designs | |
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Before-After Designs | |
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Matched-Group Designs | |
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Standardization of Conditions | |
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Creation of Valid Manipulations | |
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Impact and Experimental Realism | |
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Manipulation Checks | |
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Confound Checks | |
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How to Turn Confounding Variables into Factors | |
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Pilot Testing | |
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Threats to Internal Validity | |
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Placebo Effects | |
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Demand Characteristics | |
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Experimenter Bias | |
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Random Assignment Artifacts | |
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Current Research in the Behavioral Sciences: Testing the "Romantic Red" Hypothesis | |
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External Validity | |
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Understanding External Validity | |
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Generalization | |
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Generalization Across Participants | |
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Generalization Across Settings | |
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Replications | |
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Exact Replications | |
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Conceptual Replications | |
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Constructive Replications | |
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Participant Replications | |
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Summarizing and Integrating Research Results | |
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Research Programs | |
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Review Papers | |
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Meta-Analysis | |
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Interpretation of Research Literatures. | |
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Current Research in The Behavioral Sciences: A Meta-Analysis Of The Effectiveness Of Contemporary Treatment Approaches For Withdrawal From Tranquilizer Addictions | |
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Quasi-Experimental Research Designs | |
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Program Evaluation Research | |
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Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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Single-Group Design | |
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Comparison-Group Design | |
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Single-Group Before-After Design | |
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Comparison-Group Before-After Design | |
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Regression to the Mean as a Threat to Internal Validity | |
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Time-Series Designs | |
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Participant-Variable Designs | |
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Demographic Variables | |
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Personality Variables | |
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Interpretational Difficulties | |
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Single-Participant Designs | |
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Current Research in the Behavioral Sciences: Damage to the Hippocampus Abolishes the Cortisol Response to Psychosocial Stress in Humans | |
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Reporting Research Results | |
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Communication of Scientific Knowledge | |
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Face-to-Face Contact | |
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Publication in Scientific Journals | |
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The Research Report | |
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Headings in APA Format | |
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Title Page | |
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Abstract | |
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Introduction | |
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Method | |
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Results | |
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Discussion | |
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References | |
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Footnotes and Author Notes | |
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Tables and Figures | |
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Tips on Writing the Research Report | |
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Sample Research Report | |
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Data Preparation and Univariate Statistics | |
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Preparing Data for Analysis | |
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Collecting the Data | |
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Analyzing the Data | |
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Entering the Data into the Computer | |
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Checking and Cleaning the Data | |
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Dealing with Missing Data | |
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Deleting and Retaining Data | |
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Transforming the Data | |
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Conducting Statistical Analysis | |
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Descriptive Statistics, Parameters, and Inferential Statistics | |
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Statistical Notation | |
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Computing Descriptive Statistics | |
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Frequency Distributions | |
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Measures of Central Tendency | |
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Measures of Dispersion | |
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Computer Output | |
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Standard Scores | |
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The Standard Normal Distribution | |
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Working with Inferential Statistics | |
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Unbiased Estimators | |
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The Central Limit Theorem | |
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The Standard Error | |
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Confidence Intervals | |
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Bivariate Statistics | |
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The Pearson Correlation Coefficient | |
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Calculating r | |
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Obtaining the p-value | |
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Contingency Tables | |
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The Chi-Square Test for Independence | |
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Kappa | |
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Bivariate Regression | |
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The Regression Equation | |
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The Regression Line | |
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Partitioning of the Sum of Squares | |
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One-Way Analysis of Variance | |
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Computation of a One-Way Between-Participants ANOVA | |
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Multivariate Statistics | |
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Multiple Regression | |
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Regression Coefficients | |
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The Multiple Correlation Coefficient (R) | |
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Hierarchical and Stepwise Analyses | |
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Multiple Regression and ANOVA | |
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Loglinear Analysis | |
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Means Comparisons | |
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A Priori Contrast Analysis | |
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Post Hoc Means Comparisons | |
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Multivariate Statistics | |
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Coefficient Alpha | |
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Exploratory Factor Analysis | |
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Canonical Correlation and MANOVA | |
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Structural Equation Analysis | |
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How to Choose the Appropriate Statistical Test | |
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Statistical Tables | |
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Random Numbers | |
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Selecting a Random Sample | |
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Selecting Orders for Random Assignment Conditions | |
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Distribution of z in the Standard Normal Distribution | |
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Critical Values of t | |
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Critical Values of r | |
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Critical Values of Chi Square | |
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Critical Values of F. Statistical Table G: Statistical Power | |
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Using Computers To Collect Data | |
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Glossary | |
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References | |
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Index | |