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Preface | |
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Introduction to the Organic Laboratory | |
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Safety in the Laboratory | |
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The Laboratory Notebook | |
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Laboratory Equipment | |
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Crystallization | |
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Solvents for Crystallization | |
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Steps in Crystallization | |
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Supplemental Procedures | |
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Melting Points | |
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Characteristics of Melting Points | |
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Melting-Point Apparatus | |
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Steps in Determining a Melting Point | |
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Supplemental Procedures | |
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Extraction | |
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Immiscible Liquids | |
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Distribution Coefficients | |
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Extraction Solvents | |
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Chemically Active Extraction | |
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Steps in Extraction | |
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Additional Techniques Used in Extractions | |
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Other Extraction Techniques | |
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Drying Organic Solutions | |
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Extraction with Aqueous Sodium Chloride | |
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Solid Inoranic Drying Agents | |
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Procedure for Using Solid Inorganic Drying Agents | |
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Azeotropic Drying | |
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Simple Distillation | |
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Characteristics of Distillation | |
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Steps in a Simple Distillation | |
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Microscale and Semi-Microscale Distillation | |
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Fractional Distillation | |
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Efficiency of the Fractionation Column | |
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Steps in Fractional Distillation | |
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Microscale Fractional Distillation | |
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Vacuum Distillation | |
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Boiling Point and Pressure | |
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Apparatus for Simple Vacuum Distillation | |
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Steps in Vacuum Distillation | |
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Steam Distillation | |
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Characteristics of Steam Distillation | |
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Amount of Water Needed in a Steam Distillation | |
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Apparatus for Steam Distillation | |
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Sublimation | |
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Atmospheric Sublimation | |
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Vacuum Sublimation | |
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Refractive Index | |
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Correcting for Temperature Differences | |
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Steps in Using a Refractometer | |
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Column Chromatography | |
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Gravity Column Chromatography | |
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Flash Chromatography (Macroscale) | |
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Flash Chromatography (Microscale) | |
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High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) | |
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Thin-Layer Chromatography | |
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The R[subscript f] Value | |
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Equipment for TLC | |
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Steps in a TLC Analysis | |
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A Related Technique: Paper Chromatography | |
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Gas Chromatography | |
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Gas Chromatography | |
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The Gas Chromatography | |
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Steps in a GC Analysis | |
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Problems Encountered in GC | |
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Uses of Gas Chromatograms | |
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Carrying Out Typical Reactions | |
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Stirring | |
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Heating Reaction Mixtures | |
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Controlling Exothermic Reactions | |
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Adding Reagents to a Reaction Mixture | |
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Excluding Moisture from a Reaction Mixture | |
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Setting Up a Three-Neck Reaction Flask | |
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Hydrogen Halide Gas Traps | |
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Infrared Spectroscopy | |
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The Infrared Spectrum | |
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Absorption of Infrared Radiation | |
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Interpreting Infrared Spectra | |
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Identifying Types of Compounds | |
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Preparing a Sample for an Infrared Spectrum | |
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Instrumentation | |
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Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy | |
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The NMR Spectrum | |
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Interpreting NMR Spectra | |
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Use of Deuterium in Proton NMR Spectroscopy | |
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NMR Spectra of Unknowns | |
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The NMR Spectrometer | |
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Preparing Samples for NMR Spectra | |
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The Chemical Literature | |
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Introduction to the Chemical Literature | |
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Secondary Literature | |
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Primary Literature | |
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Commonly Used Calculations | |
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Molarity | |
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Normality | |
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Dilutions | |
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Percent Concentrations | |
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Percent Yields and Theoretical Yields | |
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Elemental Analyses | |
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Determining the Empirical Formula | |
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Determining the Molecular Formula | |
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Interpreting the Results of Elemental Analysis | |
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Degree of Unsaturation | |
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Health Hazards of Compounds Used in Organic Chemistry | |
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Where to Find Chemical Hazard Information | |
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Understanding Health Hazard Warnings | |