| |
| |
| Series Preface | |
| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols | |
| |
| |
| About the Author | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| What are Sensors? | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Nose as a Sensor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensors and Biosensors--Definitions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aspects of Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Recognition Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transducers--the Detector Device | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods of Immobilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Performance Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Areas of Application | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transduction Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrochemical Transducers--Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potentiometry and Ion-Selective Electrodes: The Nernst Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cells and Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reference Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quantitative Relationships: The Nernst Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Aspects of Ion-Selective Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement and Calibration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Voltammetry and Amperometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Linear-Sweep Voltammetry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cyclic Voltammetry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chronoamperometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amperometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Kinetic and Catalytic Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Field-Effect Transistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semiconductors--Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semiconductor--Solution Contact | |
| |
| |
| |
| Field-Effect Transistor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modified Electrodes, Thin-Film Electrodes and Screen-Printed Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thick-Film--Screen-Printed Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microelectrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thin-Film Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photometric Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optical Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ultraviolet and Visible Absorption Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fluorescence Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Luminescence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optical Transducers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Device Construction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solid-Phase Absorption Label Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensing Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ionic Recognition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion-Selective Electrodes--Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interferences | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conducting Devices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modified Electrodes and Screen-Printed Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Recognition--Chemical Recognition Agents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermodynamic--Complex Formation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Kinetic--Catalytic Effects: Kinetic Selectivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Size | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Recognition--Spectroscopic Recognition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Infrared Spectroscopy--Molecular | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ultraviolet Spectroscopy--Less Selective | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy--Needs Interpretation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mass Spectrometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Recognition--Biological Recognition Agents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tissue Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Micro-Organisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mitochondria | |
| |
| |
| |
| Antibodies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nucleic Acids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Receptors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Immobilization of Biological Components | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adsorption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microencapsulation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Entrapment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cross-Linking | |
| |
| |
| |
| Covalent Bonding | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Performance Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selectivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion-Selective Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Antibodies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Receptors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Others | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensitivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Range, Linear Range and Detection Limits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Time Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Response Times | |
| |
| |
| |
| Recovery Times | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lifetimes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Precision, Accuracy and Repeatability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Biomaterials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Transducers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Urea Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amino Acid Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glucose Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uric Acid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Some Factors Affecting the Performance of Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amount of Enzyme | |
| |
| |
| |
| Immobilization Method | |
| |
| |
| |
| pH of Buffer | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potentiometric Sensors--Ion-Selective Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Concentrations and Activities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Calibration Graphs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Examples of Ion-Selective Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gas Sensors--Gas-Sensing Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potentiometric Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| pH-Linked | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ammonia-Linked | |
| |
| |
| |
| Carbon Dioxide-Linked | |
| |
| |
| |
| Iodine-Selective | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silver Sulfide-Linked | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amperometric Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Direct Electrolytic Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Three Generations of Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| First Generation--The Oxygen Electrode | |
| |
| |
| |
| Second Generation--Mediators | |
| |
| |
| |
| Third Generation--Directly Coupled Enzyme Electrodes | |
| |
| |
| |
| NADH/NAD[superscript +] | |
| |
| |
| |
| Examples of Amperometric Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amperometric Gas Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conductometric Sensors and Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemiresistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biosensors Based on Chemiresistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semiconducting Oxide Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications of Field-Effect Transistor Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemically Sensitive Field-Effect Transistors (CHEMFETs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion-Selective Field-Effect Transistors (ISFETs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| FET-Based Biosensors (ENFETs) | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photometric Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Techniques for Optical Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modes of Operation of Waveguides in Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Immobilized Reagents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Visible Absorption Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of pH | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Carbon Dioxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Ammonia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Examples That Have Been Used in Biosensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fluorescent Reagents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fluorescent Reagents for pH Measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Halides | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sodium | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potassium | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gas Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Indirect Methods Using Competitive Binding | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reflectance Methods--Internal Reflectance Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evanescent Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reflectance Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Attenuated Total Reflectance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surface Plasmon Resonance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Light Scattering Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Light Scattering | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quasi-Elastic Light Scattering Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photon Correlation Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laser Doppler Velocimetry | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mass-Sensitive and Thermal Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Piezo-Electric Effect | |
| |
| |
| |
| Principles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gas Sensor Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biosensor Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Quartz Crystal Microbalance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surface Acoustic Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plate Wave Mode | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evanescent Wave Mode | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lamb Mode | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thickness Shear Mode | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Catalytic Gas Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Conductivity Devices | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specific Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Glucose in Blood--Amperometric Biosensor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Survey of Biosensor Methods for the Determination of Glucose | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aim | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Nanogram Levels of Copper(I) in Water Using Anodic Stripping Voltammetry, Employing an Electrode Modified with a Complexing Agent | |
| |
| |
| |
| Background to Stripping Voltammetry--Anodic and Cathodic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aim | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Several Ions Simultaneously--'The Laboratory on a Chip' | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemiresistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sensor Arrays and 'Smart' Sensors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Background to Ion-Selective Field-Effect Transistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aim | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Attomole Levels of a Trinitrotoluene--Antibody Complex with a Luminescent Transducer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Background to Immuno--Luminescent Assays | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aim | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Flavanols in Beers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aim | |
| |
| |
| Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Responses to Self-Assessment Questions | |
| |
| |
| Bibliography | |
| |
| |
| Glossary of Terms | |
| |
| |
| SI Units and Physical Constants | |
| |
| |
| Periodic Table | |
| |
| |
| Index | |