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| Foreword | |
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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| Terrestrial Hydrometeorology and the Global Water Cycle | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Water in the Earth system | |
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| Components of the global hydroclimate system | |
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| Atmosphere | |
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| Hydrosphere | |
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| Cryosphere | |
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| Lithosphere | |
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| Biosphere | |
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| Anthroposphere | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Water Vapor in the Atmosphere | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Latent heat | |
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| Atmospheric water vapor content | |
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| Ideal Gas Law | |
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| Virtual temperature | |
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| Saturated vapor pressure | |
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| Measures of saturation | |
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| Measuring the vapor pressure of air | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Vertical Gradients in the Atmosphere | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Hydrostatic pressure law | |
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| Adiabatic lapse rates | |
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| Dry adiabatic lapse rate | |
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| Moist adiabatic lapse rate | |
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| Environmental lapse rate | |
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| Vertical pressure and temperature gradients | |
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| Potential temperature | |
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| Virtual potential temperature | |
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| Atmospheric stability | |
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| Static stability parameter | |
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| Important points in this Chapter 34 | |
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| Surface Energy Fluxes | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Latent and sensible heat fluxes | |
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| Energy balance of an ideal surface | |
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| Net radiation, Rn | |
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| Latent heat flux, lE | |
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| Sensible heat flux, H | |
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| Soil heat flux, G | |
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| Physical energy storage, St | |
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| Biochemical energy storage, P | |
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| Advected energy, Ad | |
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| Flux sign convention | |
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| Evaporative fraction and Bowen ratio | |
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| Energy budget of open water | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Terrestrial Radiation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Blackbody radiation laws | |
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| Radiation exchange for 'gray’ surfaces | |
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| Integrated radiation parameters for natural surfaces | |
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| Maximum solar radiation at the top of atmosphere | |
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| Maximum solar radiation at the ground | |
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| Atmospheric attenuation of solar radiation | |
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| Actual solar radiation at the ground | |
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| Longwave radiation | |
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| Net radiation at the surface | |
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| Height dependence of net radiation | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Soil Temperature and Heat Flux | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Soil surface temperature | |
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| Subsurface soil temperatures | |
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| Thermal properties of soil | |
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| Density of soil, rs | |
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| Specific heat of soil, cs | |
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| Heat capacity per unit volume, Cs | |
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| Thermal conductivity, ks | |
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| Thermal diffusivity, as | |
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| Formal description of soil heat flow | |
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| Thermal waves in homogeneous soil | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Measuring Surface Heat Fluxes | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Measuring solar radiation | |
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| Daily estimates of cloud cover | |
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| Thermoelectric pyranometers | |
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| Photoelectric pyranometers | |
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| Measuring net radiation | |
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| Measuring soil heat flux | |
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| Measuring latent and sensible heat | |
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| Micrometeorological measurement of surface energy fluxes | |
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| Bowen ratio/energy budget method | |
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| Eddy correlation method | |
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| Evaporation measurement from integrated water loss | |
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| Evaporation pans | |
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| Watersheds and lakes | |
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| Lysimeters | |
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| Soil moisture depletion | |
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| Comparison of evaporation measuring methods | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| General Circulation Models | |
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| Introduction | |
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| What are General Circulation Models? | |
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| How are General Circulation Models used? | |
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| How do General Circulation Models work? | |
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| Sequence of operations | |
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| Solving the dynamics | |
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| Calculating the physics | |
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| Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Global Scale Influences on Hydrometeorology | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Global scale influences on atmospheric circulation | |
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| Planetary interrelationship | |
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| Latitudinal differences in solar energy input | |
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| Seasonal perturbations | |
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| Daily perturbations | |
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| Persistent perturbations | |
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| Contrast in ocean to continent surface exchanges | |
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| Continental topography | |
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| Temporary perturbations | |
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| Perturbations in oceanic circulation | |
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| Perturbations in atmospheric content | |
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| Perturbations in continental land cover | |
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| Latitudinal imbalance in radiant energy | |
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| Lower atmosphere circulation | |
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| Latitudinal bands of pressure and wind | |
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| Hadley circulation | |
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| Mean low-level circulation | |
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| Mean upper level circulation | |
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| Ocean circulation | |
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| Oceanic influences on continental hydroclimate | |
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| Monsoon flow | |
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| Tropical cyclones | |
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| El Ni�o Southern Oscillation | |
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| Pacific Decadal Oscillation | |
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| North Atlantic Oscillation | |
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| Water vapor in the atmosphere | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Formation of Clouds | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Cloud generating mechanisms | |
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| Cloud condensation nuclei | |
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| Saturated vapor pressure of curved surfaces | |
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| Cloud droplet size, concentration and terminal velocity | |
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| Ice in clouds | |
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| Cloud formation processes | |
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| Thermal convection | |
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| Foehn effect | |
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| Extratropical fronts and cyclones | |
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| Cloud genera | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Formation of Precipitation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Precipitation formation in warm clouds | |
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| Precipitation formation in other clouds | |
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| Which clouds produce rain? | |
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| Precipitation form | |
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| Raindrop size distribution | |
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| Rainfall rates and kinetic energy | |
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| Forms of frozen precipitation | |
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| Other forms of precipitation | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Precipitation Measurement and Observation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Precipitation measurement using gauges | |
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| Instrumental errors | |
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| Site and location errors | |
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| Gauge designs | |
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| Areal representativeness of gauge measurements | |
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| Snowfall measurement | |
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| Precipitation measurement using ground-based radar | |
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| Precipitation measurement using satellite systems | |
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| Cloud mapping and characterization | |
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| Passive measurement of cloud properties | |
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| Spaceborne radar | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Precipitation Analysis in Time | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Precipitation climatology | |
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| Annual variations | |
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| Intra-annual variations | |
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| Daily variations | |
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| Trends in precipitation | |
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| Running means | |
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| Cumulative deviations | |
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| Mass curve | |
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| Oscillations in precipitation | |
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| System signatures | |
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| Intensity-duration relationships | |
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| Statistics of extremes | |
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| Conditional probabilities | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Precipitation Analysis in Space | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Mapping precipitation | |
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| Areal mean precipitation | |
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| Isohyetal method | |
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| Triangle method | |
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| Theissen method | |
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| Spatial organization of precipitation | |
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| Design storms and areal reduction factors | |
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| Probable maximum precipitation | |
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| Spatial correlation of precipitation | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Mathematical and Conceptual Tools of Turbulence | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Signature and spectrum of atmospheric turbulence | |
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| Mean and fluctuating components | |
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| Rules of averaging for decomposed variables | |
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| Variance and standard deviation | |
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| Measures of the strength of turbulence | |
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| Mean and turbulent kinetic energy | |
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| Linear correlation coefficient | |
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| Kinematic flux | |
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| Advective and turbulent fluxes | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Equations of Atmospheric Flow in the ABL | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Time rate of change in a fluid | |
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| Conservation of momentum in the atmosphere | |
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| Pressure forces | |
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| Viscous flow in fluids | |
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| Axis-specific forces | |
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| Combined momentum forces | |
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| Conservation of mass of air | |
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| Conservation of atmospheric moisture | |
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| Conservation of energy | |
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| Conservation of a scalar quantity | |
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| Summary of equations of atmospheric flow | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Equations of Turbulent Flow in the ABL | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Fluctuations in the ideal gas law | |
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| The Boussinesq approximation | |
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| Neglecting subsidence | |
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| Geostrophic wind | |
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| Divergence equation for turbulent fluctuations | |
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| Conservation of momentum in the turbulent ABL | |
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| Conservation of moisture, heat, and scalars in the turbulent ABL | |
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| Neglecting molecular diffusion | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Observed ABL Profiles: Higher Order Moments | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Nature and evolution of the ABL | |
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| Daytime ABL profiles | |
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| Nighttime ABL profiles | |
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| Higher order moments | |
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| Prognostic equations for turbulent departures | |
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| Prognostic equations for turbulent kinetic energy | |
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| Prognostic equations for variance of moisture and heat | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Turbulent Closure, K Theory, and Mixing Length | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Richardson number | |
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| Turbulent closure | |
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| Low order closure schemes | |
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| Local, first order closure | |
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| Mixing length theory | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Surface Layer Scaling and Aerodynamic Resistance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Dimensionless gradients | |
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| Obukhov length | |
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| Flux-gradient relationships | |
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| Returning fluxes to natural units | |
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| Resistance analogues and aerodynamic resistance | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Canopy Processes and Canopy Resistances | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Boundary layer exchange processes | |
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| Shelter factors | |
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| Stomatal resistance | |
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| Energy budget of a dry leaf | |
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| Energy budget of a dry canopy | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Whole Canopy Interactions | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Whole-canopy aerodynamics and canopy structure | |
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| Excess resistance | |
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| Roughness sublayer | |
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| Wet canopies | |
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| Equilibrium evaporation | |
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| Evaporation into an unsaturated atmosphere | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Daily Estimates of Evaporation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Daily average values of weather variables | |
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| Temperature, humidity, and wind speed | |
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| Net radiation | |
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| Open water evaporation | |
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| Reference crop evapotranspiration | |
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| Penman-Monteith equation estimation of ERC | |
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| Radiation-based estimation of ERC | |
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| Temperature-based estimation of ERC | |
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| Evaporation pan-based estimation of ERC | |
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| Evaporation from unstressed vegetation: the Matt-Shuttleworth approach | |
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| Evaporation from water stressed vegetation | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Soil Vegetation Atmosphere Transfer Schemes | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Basis and origin of land-surface sub-models | |
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| Developing realism in SVATS | |
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| Plot-scale, one-dimensional 'micrometeorological’ models | |
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| Improving representation of hydrological processes | |
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| Improving representation of carbon dioxide exchange | |
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| Ongoing developments in land surface sub-models | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Sensitivity to Land Surface Exchanges | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Influence of land surfaces on weather and climate | |
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| A. The influence of existing land-atmosphere interactions | |
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| Effect of topography on convection and precipitation | |
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| Contribution by land surfaces to atmospheric water availability | |
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| B. The influence of transient changes in land surfaces | |
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| Effect of transient changes in soil moisture | |
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| Effect of transient changes in vegetation cover | |
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| Effect of transient changes in frozen precipitation cover | |
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| Combined effect of transient changes | |
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| C. The influence of imposed persistent changes in land cover | |
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| Effect of imposed land cover change on near surface observations | |
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| Effect of imposed land-cover change on regional-scale climate | |
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| Effect of imposed heterogeneity in land cover | |
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| Important points in this Chapter | |
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| Example Questions and Answers | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Example questions | |
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| Example Answers | |
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| Index | |