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| Preface to the Fourth Edition | |
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| Biomechanics as an Interdiscipline | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Measurement, Description, Analysis, and Assessment | |
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| Measurement, Description, and Monitoring | |
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| Analysis | |
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| Assessment and Interpretation | |
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| Biomechanics and its Relationship with Physiology and Anatomy | |
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| Scope of the Textbook | |
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| Signal Processing | |
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| Kinematics | |
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| Kinetics | |
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| Anthropometry | |
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| Muscle and Joint Biomechanics | |
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| Electromyography | |
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| Synthesis of Human Movement | |
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| Biomechanical Motor Synergies | |
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| References | |
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| Signal Processing | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Auto-and Cross-Correlation Analyses | |
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| Similarity to the Pearson Correlation | |
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| Formulae for Auto- and Cross-Correlation Coefficients | |
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| Four Properties of the Autocorrelation Function | |
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| Three Properties of the Cross-Correlation Function | |
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| Importance in Removing the Mean Bias from the Signal | |
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| Digital Implementation of Auto- and Cross-Correlation Functions | |
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| Application of Autocorrelations | |
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| Applications of Cross-Correlations | |
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| Frequency Analysis | |
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| Introduction-Time Domain vs. Frequency Domain | |
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| Discrete Fourier (Harmonic) Analysis | |
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| Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) | |
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| Applications of Spectrum Analyses | |
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| Ensemble Averaging of Repetitive Waveforms | |
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| Examples of Ensemble-Averaged Profiles | |
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| Normalization of Time Bases to 100% | |
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| Measure of Average Variability about the Mean Waveform | |
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| References | |
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| Kinematics | |
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| Historical Development and Complexity of Problem | |
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| Kinematic Conventions | |
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| Absolute Spatial Reference System | |
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| Total Description of a Body Segment in Space | |
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| Direct Measurement Techniques | |
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| Goniometers | |
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| Special Joint Angle Measuring Systems | |
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| Accelerometers | |
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| Imaging Measurement Techniques | |
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| Review of Basic Lens Optics | |
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| f-Stop Setting and Field of Focus | |
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| Cinematography | |
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| Television | |
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| Optoelectric Techniques | |
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| Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Systems | |
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| Summary of Various Kinematic Systems | |
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| Processing of Raw Kinematic Data | |
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| Nature of Unprocessed Image Data | |
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| Signal versus Noise in Kinematic Data | |
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| Problems of Calculating Velocities and Accelerations | |
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| Smoothing and Curve Fitting of Data | |
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| Comparison of Some Smoothing Techniques | |
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| Calculation of Other Kinematic Variables | |
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| Limb-Segment Angles | |
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| Joint Angles | |
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| Velocities-Linear and Angular | |
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| Accelerations-Linear and Angular | |
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| Problems Based on Kinematic Data | |
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| References | |
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| Anthropometry | |
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| Scope of Anthropometry in Movement Biomechanics | |
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| Segment Dimensions | |
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| DensityMassand Inertial Properties | |
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| Whole-Body Density | |
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| Segment Densities | |
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| Segment Mass and Center of Mass | |
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| Center of Mass of a Multisegment System | |
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| Mass Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration | |
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| Parallel-Axis Theorem | |
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| Use of Anthropometric Tables and Kinematic Data | |
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| Direct Experimental Measures | |
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| Location of the Anatomical Center of Mass of the Body | |
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| Calculation of the Mass of a Distal Segment | |
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| Moment of Inertia of a Distal Segment | |
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| Joint Axes of Rotation | |
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| Muscle Anthropometry | |
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| Cross-Sectional Area of Muscles | |
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| Change in Muscle Length during Movement | |
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| Force per Unit Cross-Sectional Area (Stress) | |
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| Mechanical Advantage of Muscle | |
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| Multijoint Muscles | |
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| Problems Based on Anthropometric Data | |
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| References | |
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| Kinetics: Forces and Moments of Force | |
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| Biomechanical Models | |
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| Link-Segment Model Development | |
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| Forces Acting on the Link-Segment Model | |
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| Joint Reaction Forces and Bone-on-Bone Forces | |
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| Basic Link-Segment Equations-the Free-Body Diagram | |
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| Force Transducers and Force Plates | |
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| Multidirectional Force Transducers117 | |
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| Force Plates | |
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| Special Pressure-Measuring Sensory Systems | |
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| Synchronization of Force Plate and Kinematic Data | |
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| Combined Force Plate and Kinematic Data | |
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| Interpretation of Moment-of-Force Curves | |
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| A Note about the Wrong Way to Analyze Moments of Force | |
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| Differences between Center of Mass and Center of Pressure | |
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| Kinematics and Kinetics of the Inverted Pendulum Mode | |
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| Bone-on-Bone Forces During Dynamic Conditions | |
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| Indeterminacy in Muscle Force Estimates | |
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| Example Problem (Scott and Winter1990) | |
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| Problems Based on Kinetic and Kinematic Data | |
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| References | |
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| Mechanical Work, Energy, and Power | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Mechanical Energy and Work | |
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| Law of Conservation of Energy | |
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| Internal versus External Work | |
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| Positive Work of Muscles | |
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| Negative Work of Muscles | |
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| Muscle Mechanical Power | |
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| Mechanical Work of Muscles | |
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| Mechanical Work Done on an External Load | |
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| Mechanical Energy Transfer between Segments | |
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| Efficiency | |
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| Causes of Inefficient Movement | |
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| Summary of Energy Flows | |
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| Forms of Energy Storage | |
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| Energy of a Body Segment and Exchanges of Energy Within the Segment | |
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| Total Energy of a Multisegment System | |
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| Calculation of Internal and External Work | |
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| Internal Work Calculation | |
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| External Work Calculation | |
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| Power Balances at Joints and Within Segments | |
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| Energy Transfer via Muscles | |
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| Power Balance Within Segments | |
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| Problems Based on Kinetic and Kinematic Data | |
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| References | |
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| Three-Dimensional Kinematics and Kinetics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Axes Systems | |
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| Global Reference System | |
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| Local Reference Systems and Rotation of Axes | |
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| Other Possible Rotation Sequences | |
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| Dot and Cross Products | |
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| Marker and Anatomical Axes Systems | |
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| Example of a Kinematic Data Set | |
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| Determination of Segment Angular Velocities and Accelerations | |
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| Kinetic Analysis of Reaction Forces and Moments | |
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| Newtonian Three-Dimensional Equations of Motion for a Segment | |
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| Eider's Three-Dimensional Equations of Motion for a Segment | |
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| Example of a Kinetic Data Set | |
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| Joint Mechanical Powers | |
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| Sample Moment and Power Curves | |
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| Suggested Further Reading | |
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| References | |
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| Synthesis of Human Movement-Forward Solutions | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Assumptions and Constraints of Forward Solution Models | |
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| Potential of Forward Solution Simulations | |
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| Review of Forward Solution Models | |
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| Mathematical Formulation | |
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| Lagrange's Equations of Motion | |
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| The Generalized Coordinates and Degrees of Freedom | |
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| The Lagrangian Function L | |
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| Generalized Forces [Q] | |
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| Lagrange's Equations | |
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| Points and Reference Systems | |
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| Displacement and Velocity Vectors | |
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| System Energy | |
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| Segment Energy | |
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| Spring Potential Energy and Dissipative Energy | |
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| External Forces and Torques | |
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| Designation of Joints | |
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| Illustrative Example | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Muscle Mechanics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Motor Unit | |
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| Recruitment of Motor Units | |
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| Size Principle | |
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| Types of Motor Units-Fast- and Slow-Twitch Classification | |
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| The Muscle Twitch | |
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| Shape of Graded Contractions | |
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| Force-Length Characteristics of Muscles | |
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| Force-Length Curve of the Contractile Element | |
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| Influence of Parallel Connective Tissue | |
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| Series Elastic Tissue | |
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| In Vivo Force-Length Measures | |
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| Force-Velocity Characteristics | |
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| Concentric Contractions | |
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| Eccentric Contractions | |
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| Combination of Length and Velocity versus Force | |
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| Combining Muscle Characteristics with Load Characteristics: Equilibrium | |
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| Muscle Modeling | |
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| Example of a Model-EMG Driven | |
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| References | |
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| Kinesiological Electromyography | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Electrophysiology of Muscle Contraction | |
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| Motor End Plate | |
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| Sequence of Chemical Events Leading to a Twitch | |
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| Generation of a Muscle Action Potential | |
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| Duration of the Motor Unit Action Potential | |
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| Detection of Motor Unit Action Potentials from Electromyogram during Graded Contractions | |
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| Recording of the Electromyogram | |
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| Amplifier Gain | |
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| Input Impedance | |
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| Frequency Response | |
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| Common-Mode Rejection | |
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| Cross-Talk in Surface Electromyograms | |
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| Recommendations for Surface Electromyogram Reporting and Electrode Placement Procedures | |
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| Processing of the Electromyogram | |
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| Full-Wave Rectification | |
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| Linear Envelope | |
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| True Mathematical Integrators | |
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| Relationship between Electromyogram and Biomechanical Variables | |
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| Electromyogram versus Isometric Tension | |
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| Electromyogram during Muscle Shortening and Lengthening | |
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| Electromyogram Changes during Fatigue | |
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| References | |
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| Biomechanical Movement Synergies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Support Moment Synergy | |
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| Relationship between Ms and the Vertical Ground Reaction Force | |
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| Medial/Lateral and Anterior/Posterior Balance in Standing | |
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| Quiet Standing | |
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| Medial Lateral Balance Control during Workplace Tasks | |
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| Dynamic Balance during Walking | |
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| The Human Inverted Pendulum in Steady State Walking | |
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| Initiation of Gait | |
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| Gait Termination | |
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| References | |
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| Appendices | |
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| KinematicKineticand Energy Data | |
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| Walking Trial-Marker Locations and Mass and Frame Rate Information | |
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| Raw Coordinate Data (cm) | |
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| Filtered Marker Kinematics-Rib Cage and Greater Trochanter (Hip) | |
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| Filtered Marker Kinematics-Femoral Lateral Epicondyle (Knee) and Head of Fibula | |
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| Filtered Marker Kinematics-Lateral Malleolus (Ankle) and Heel | |
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| Filtered Marker Kinematics-Fifth Metatarsal and Toe | |
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| Linear and Angular Kinematics-Foot | |
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| Linear and Angular Kinematics-Leg | |
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| Linear and Angular Kinematics-Thigh | |
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| Linear and Angular Kinematics-1/2 HAT | |
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| Relative Joint Angular Kinematics-Ankle, Knee, and Hip | |
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| Reaction Forces and Moments of Force-Ankle and Knee | |
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| Reaction Forces and Moments of Force-Hip | |
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| Segment Potential, Kinetic, and Total Energies-Foot, Leg, Thigh, and 1/2 HAT | |
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| Power Generation/Absorption and Transfer-Ankle, Knee, and Hip | |
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| Units and Definitions Related to Biomechanical and Electromyographical Measurements | |
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| Base SI Units | |
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| Derived SI Units | |
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| Index | |