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Forward: How I Came to Know About Beginning to Read | |
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Introduction | |
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Putting Word Recognition in Perspective | |
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Operation of the Reading System | |
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Acquisition of the Reading System | |
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Organization of the Book | |
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Reading Words and Meaning: From an Age-Old Problem to a Contemporary Crisis | |
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The Purposes versus the Methods of Writing | |
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From Pictures to Logograms | |
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From Logograms to Syllabaries | |
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The Alphabet | |
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Reading Instruction in the United States | |
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From Colonial Times | |
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The Evolution of Meaning-First Curricula | |
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An Angry Protest | |
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The Aftermath | |
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Toward the Future | |
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Why Phonics? | |
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Program Comparisons (And, by the Way, What Is Phonics?) | |
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Jeanne Chall and The Great Debate | |
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The Setting | |
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The Proposal | |
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From the Authorities | |
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From the Texts | |
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From the Classrooms | |
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From the Research | |
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The Message | |
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Other Program Comparisons | |
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The USOE Cooperative Research Program | |
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Follow Through | |
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A Quantitative Synthesis | |
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Summary of the Program Comparisons | |
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Exactly What Is Good about Phonic Instruction? | |
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How Much Is the Right Amount? | |
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What Do Phonic Programs Teach? | |
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Where Does This Leave Us? | |
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One More Possibility | |
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Research on Prereaders | |
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What About Mental Age? | |
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What about Perceptual Skills? | |
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Knowing Letters | |
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Phonemic Awareness | |
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Why Is Phonemic Awareness a Problem? | |
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Phonemic Segmentation Tasks | |
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Phoneme Manipulation Tasks | |
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Syllable-Splitting Tasks | |
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Blending Tasks | |
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Oddity Tasks | |
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Knowledge of Nursery Rhymes | |
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Summary: Phonemic Awareness | |
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Where Do Prereading Skills Come From? Early Experience with Print | |
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What Needs to Be Taught? Hints from Skilled Readers | |
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Outside-In Models of Reading: What Skilled Readers Look Like They Do | |
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Word Shape Cues | |
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Sophisticated Guessing | |
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Comprehension as Hypothesis-Testing | |
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Semantic Preprocessing | |
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Sounding Words Out | |
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Summary | |
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Analyzing the Reading Process: Orthographic Processing | |
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Skilled Readers Look at the Letters and See Letter Patterns | |
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The Importance of Automatic Letter Recognition | |
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What Else Do the Letter Associations Do for Us? | |
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Processing Letter Order | |
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Breaking Words into Syllables | |
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Syllabic Cues from Consonants | |
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Syllabic Cues from Vowels | |
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All Together: Consonants, Vowels, and Spelling Patterns | |
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Seeing Syllables | |
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Learning about Likely and Unlikely Letter Sequences | |
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Summary and Instructional Implications | |
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Analyzing the Reading Process: Use and Uses of Meaning | |
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The Relationship between Meaning and Orthography | |
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The Context Processor | |
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Contextual Facilitation and Word Recognition | |
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Contextual Facilitation and Comprehension | |
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The Meaning Processor | |
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Acquiring Concepts | |
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Acquiring the Meanings of New Words | |
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Strategic Use of Context Should Be Taught | |
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Vocabulary Instruction | |
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Importance of Learning New Words from Context | |
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Meaningfulness and Orthographic Knowledge | |
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Knowledge about Prefixes, Suffixes, and Word Stems | |
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Instructional Implications | |
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Adding the Phonological Processor: How the Whole System Works Together | |
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The Nature of the Phonological Processor | |
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The Importance of Phonological Processing in Reading | |
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Interactions among All Three Processors: The Alphabetic Backup System | |
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Orthographic Processing | |
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Vulnerabilities of the Orthographic Processor | |
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Compensating for Orthographic Difficulties | |
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Phonological Processing | |
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Vulnerabilities of the Phonological Processor | |
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Compensating for Phonological Difficulties | |
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Processing Meaning | |
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Vulnerabilities of the Meaning Processor | |
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Remediating the Meaning Processor's Weaknesses | |
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Summary: Interactions between Processors | |
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Supporting the Reader's Running Memory for Text | |
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Summary: The Importance of Phonological Processing | |
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Thinking, Learning, and Reading | |
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The Nature of Learning (Words or Otherwise) | |
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The Structure of Knowledge | |
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Comparisons of Connectionist Theories with Others | |
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The Relation of Knowledge to Thought and Understanding | |
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The Relevance to Word Recognition | |
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Encoding the Parts versus the Associations between Them | |
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What Are the "Parts" (and the "Parts" of the "Parts")? | |
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What About Rules? | |
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On the Goals of Print Instruction: What Do We Want Students to Learn? | |
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The Importance of Phonological Processing in Learning to Read | |
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Independence and "Self-Teaching" | |
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Remembering the Order and Identities of Letters | |
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Building Orthographic Associations through Oral Communication | |
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Spelling-Sound versus Spelling-Meaning Relationships | |
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The Importance of Automatic Word Recognition | |
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Learning to Attend to Spellings and Meanings | |
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Learning How to Read | |
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On Teaching Phonics First | |
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Teaching Individual Letter-Sound Correspondences | |
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The Right Amount of Practice | |
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How Many Pairs Must Be Learned? | |
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Which Correspondences Should Be Taught? | |
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The Teaching of Individual Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondences | |
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Establish the Alphabetic Principle | |
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Phonemic Accessibility | |
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Referential Clarity | |
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Graphemes with Multiple Sounds | |
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Summary: Teaching Individual Letter-Sound Relationships | |
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Phonic Generalizations | |
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Evaluating Phonic Generalizations | |
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Pronunciation of Consonants | |
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Accentuation of Syllables | |
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Division of Syllables | |
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Pronunciation of Vowels | |
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Summary: Phonic Generalizations | |
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Reading Connected Text | |
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Summary: Phonics and Connected Reading | |
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Phonological Prerequisites: Becoming Aware of Spoken Words, Syllables, and Phonemes | |
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Levels of Linguistic Awareness | |
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Becoming Aware of Spoken Words | |
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Becoming Aware of Spoken Syllables | |
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Becoming Aware of Phonemes | |
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Between Syllables and Phonemes: Onsets and Rimes | |
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Psychology versus Acoustics | |
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What Are Onsets and Rimes? | |
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Evidence for the Psychological Reality of Onsets and Rimes | |
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Sensitivity to Onsets and Rimes: Nature versus Experience | |
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Naturalistic Evidence for Onsets and Rimes | |
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The Instructional Prospects of Onsets and Rimes | |
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The Visual Salience of Onsets and Rimes | |
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The Utility of Rimes in the Development of Vowel Generalizations | |
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Other Instructional Considerations | |
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Putting It All Together | |
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Learning about Print: The First Steps | |
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Becoming Aware of the Nature of Print | |
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From the Child's Vantage Point | |
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From Our Vantage Point | |
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Summary: Print Awareness | |
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Becoming Aware of Words in Print | |
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Becoming Aware that Printed Words Consist of Letters | |
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Learning the Visual Identities of the Individual Letters | |
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What's Hard about Learning Letter Identities? | |
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Encoding the Characters | |
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How Are Letter Identities Taught in School? | |
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Teaching Visual Recognition with the Help of Letter Names | |
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Teaching Letters through Sounds Instead | |
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Learning Letters through Writing, Copying, and Tracing | |
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Uppercase and Lowercase Letters | |
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How Are Letter Identities Most Often Learned? | |
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Summary: Learning Letters | |
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The Value of Pictures | |
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Pictures as Aids for Word Recognition | |
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Pictures as Support for Comprehension and Interest | |
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Fostering Awareness of Print | |
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Sharing Books with Children | |
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Language Experience Activities | |
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Summary: Print Preliminaries | |
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To Reading from Writing | |
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Early Spelling and Phonemic Awareness | |
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Teaching Phonetic Spellings to Children | |
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Letting Children Invent Spellings | |
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Pedagogical Issues | |
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Learning How to Spell Correctly | |
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The Relation between Reading and Spelling Skills | |
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Directing Students' Attention to Spellings | |
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The Influence of Spelling on the Perception of Phonology and Meaning | |
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Summary: Learning How to Spell Correctly | |
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Beyond Spelling | |
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Summary and Conclusion | |
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The Proper Place of Phonics | |
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The System in Review | |
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Phonics and Reading Instruction | |
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Afterword | |
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References | |
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Name Index | |
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Subject Index | |