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| Preface | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Origins of the Study of Learning | |
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| Philosophy of Epistemology | |
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| Evolution | |
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| Contemporary Influences | |
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| The Definition of Learning | |
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| Some Caveats | |
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| The Learning/Performance Distinction | |
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| Learning: A Recapitulation | |
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| The Relationship between the Terms Learning and Memory | |
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| Basic and Applied Research | |
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| Common Sense and Common Knowledge | |
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| Why Animals? | |
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| Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Learning | |
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| The Behavioral Approach | |
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| The Cognitive Approach | |
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| The Neuropsychological Approach | |
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| Summary | |
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| Habituation and Other Forms of Simple Stimulus Learning | |
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| The Orienting Response | |
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| Habituation | |
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| Methods of Studying Habituation | |
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| Parametric Features of Habituation | |
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| Explanations of Habituation | |
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| Nonlearning Explanations | |
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| Physiological Theories | |
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| Cognitive Theories | |
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| Perceptual Learning | |
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| Other Effects of Stimulus Exposure | |
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| Preference for Familiar Stimuli | |
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| Priming Facilitation | |
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| Recapitulation: The Effects of Repeated Stimulus Presentation | |
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| Applications | |
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| Habituation to Warning Signals | |
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| Exposure Therapy for Fears | |
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| Summary | |
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| Classical Conditioning | |
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| The Definition of Classical Conditioning | |
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| Methods of Studying Classical Conditioning | |
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| Some Representative Procedures | |
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| What Stimuli Can Serve as CSs? | |
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| What Stimuli Can Serve as USs? | |
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| Basic Phenomena of Conditioning | |
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| Acquisition | |
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| Extinction | |
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| Generalization | |
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| Discrimination | |
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| The Role of Contiguity | |
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| Other Factors Affecting Conditioning | |
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| Prior Exposure | |
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| Compound CSs | |
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| Surprise | |
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| CS-US Relevance | |
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| Conditioned Inhibition | |
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| What Is Learned in Classical Conditioning? | |
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| So, What Is Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning? | |
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| The Role of Awareness in Conditioning | |
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| Extensions of Conditioning | |
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| Conditioning with Drug USs and the Development of Tolerance | |
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| Modification of Immune System Response | |
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| Applications of Conditioning | |
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| The Conditioning Theory of Phobias | |
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| Systematic Desensitization | |
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| Summary | |
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| Instrumental Conditioning: Reward | |
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| Definition and History | |
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| Thorndike and Trial-and-Error Learning | |
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| Skinner and Operant Learning | |
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| Methods of Study | |
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| Positive Reinforcement | |
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| Reinforcement Variables Affecting Acquisition | |
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| Amount and Quality of Reinforcement | |
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| Drive | |
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| Schedules of Reinforcement | |
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| Delay of Reinforcement | |
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| Secondary Reinforcement | |
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| Social Reinforcement | |
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| Theories of Reinforcement | |
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| Reinforcers as Stimuli | |
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| Reinforcers as Behaviors | |
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| Reinforcers as Strengtheners | |
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| Reinforcers as Information | |
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| So, What Is Reinforcement? | |
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| Is Reinforcement Necessary for Learning? | |
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| Conscious Awareness in Human Instrumental Learning | |
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| Criticisms of the Use of Reinforcement | |
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| Response Learning | |
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| Shaping | |
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| Limitations of Response Learning | |
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| Discriminative Stimulus Control | |
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| Generalization and Discrimination | |
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| Summary of Response Learning and Stimulus Learning | |
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| What Is Learned in Instrumental Conditioning? | |
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| Response-Reinforcer Learning | |
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| Stimulus-Response Learning | |
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| Stimulus-Reinforcer Learning | |
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| What Is Learned? | |
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| Stimulus-Response-Reinforcer | |
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| Applications | |
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| Habit Slips | |
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| Behavior Modification | |
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| Cognition in Animals | |
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| Summary | |
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| Instrumental Conditioning: Nonreward, Punishment, and Avoidance | |
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| Defining the Contingencies: Nonreward, Punishment, and Avoidance | |
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| Nonreward | |
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| Extinction | |
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| The Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect | |
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| Punishment | |
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| When Does Punishment Work? | |
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| Unwanted Side Effects of Punishment | |