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| List of Figures | |
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| List of Maps | |
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| Introduction: The Reformation and Europe | |
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| The Background | |
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| The Religion of the People of Europe | |
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| The Shared Religion of the Late Medieval West | |
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| The Mass of the People | |
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| The View from the Religious Elites | |
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| The Vulnerability of the Church | |
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| A Conflict of Responsibilities | |
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| Economic Problems | |
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| Abuse of Priestly Status | |
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| The 'Inflation' of Bureaucracy | |
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| The Personnel the Church Deserved? | |
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| 'Reform' from within and its Limits | |
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| Reform from above: A Lost Cause? | |
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| Piecemeal Reforms: The Papacy, the Religious Orders | |
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| The 'Unreformable' Bishops and Secular Clergy | |
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| The Clich�s of Reform: Ideals and Decay | |
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| Challenges from outside and their Limits | |
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| Councils of the Church versus Popes? | |
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| Popes, Sovereigns, and 'National Churches' | |
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| The Laity against the Church? | |
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| A 'Lay Spirit' in Religion? | |
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| The Northern Renaissance and the Church | |
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| Heresy: An Alternative Church? | |
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| The Hussite Movements in Bohemia | |
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| Popular Lay Heresies | |
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| The Church and the Christian Soul | |
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| The Lifelong Cycle of Sin, Absolution, and Penance | |
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| Explaining How: Theologies of Justification | |
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| The Church: Holy, Authoritative, Sacrificial? | |
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| Conclusion: A Precarious Equilibrium | |
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| The Reformers and their Message | |
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| The 'Luther Affair' and its Context | |
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| Martin Luther's Public Career, 1517-22 | |
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| Context and Catalysts | |
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| The Reformation Message Spreads and Diversifies: Switzerland and South Germany | |
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| The Conversions of the Reformers | |
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| Martin Luther: Development and Influences | |
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| The Non-Humanist Reformers | |
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| Humanist Reformers: Origins and Backgrounds | |
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| Humanist Reformers: Conversions | |
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| Rejections of Reform | |
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| The Older Generation | |
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| Some Italian 'Evangelicals' | |
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| The Reformers' Message: Salvation | |
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| The Human Race, Sin, and the Law | |
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| Faith, its Nature and Object | |
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| Justification | |
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| Regeneration | |
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| Predestination | |
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| Conclusion: An Assault on the Penitential Cycle | |
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| The Reformers' Message: Scripture | |
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| The Church and Scripture | |
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| Reading and Understanding the Bible | |
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| The Reformers' Message: The Church | |
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| The 'Community of the Faithful' | |
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| Sacrificing Priests to Preaching Ministers | |
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| Church and State | |
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| The Reformers' Message: Sacraments | |
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| Defining 'Sacraments' | |
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| Baptism: Seeking to Explain its Role | |
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| The Communion: A Bone of Contention | |
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| Rejecting the Rest | |
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| Conclusion: A Novel and Destructive Challenge | |
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| Establishing the Reformed Churches | |
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| Unsuccessful �Affiliations' to the Reformed Cause | |
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| The Petty Nobility of Germany | |
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| Communal Movements in Rural Germany | |
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| Self-Governing Towns and Cities | |
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| The Urban Reformation in Germany | |
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| The Reformation of the Urban Cantons of Switzerland | |
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| Introducing the New Ideas in the Cities | |
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| The City Councils become Arbiters | |
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| The Political Pressures: Coup d'�tat, Consensus, or Compulsion? | |
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| Demolishing the Old Order | |
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| Constructing the New Order | |
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| Unsuccessful Civic Reformation Movements | |
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| Principalities and Kingdoms | |
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| The German Princes | |
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| Kings, Nobles, and Bishops: The Scandinavian Kingdoms | |
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| Fragmented Kingdoms: Eastern-Central Europe | |
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| Partial Reformation: England before 1559 | |
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| Reformations Delayed: France and Scotland before 1559 | |
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| Motives for Establishing the Reformation? | |
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| Wealth and Power? | |
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| Appeal to Classes or Social Structures? | |
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| Answering a Spiritual Need? | |
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| Conclusion: Reformed Preaching Honours Lay Participation | |
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| Beyond the 'Reformation Moment': From Temporary Coalitions to Growing Communities | |
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| Voluntary, Gathered Movements Reject the 'Coalition' | |
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| Radicals and Anabaptists to 1535 | |
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| Restructuring and Survival, 1535-C.1600 | |
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| New 'Heresies' in Eastern Europe | |
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| Religious and Social Teaching | |
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| Crisis, Survival, and Compromise in Politics | |
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| German Politics to 1555 | |
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| Political Theory: From Non-Resistance to Godly Rebellion | |
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| Teaching by Example: Martyrs and Warriors of the Gospel | |
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| Reformers at Odds: The 'Confessional' Reformation | |
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| Lutheran Controversies, c.1540-c.1580 | |
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| Germany's 'Confessional' Movement, c. 1560-1600 | |
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| Religion and Revolt: France and the Low Countries | |
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| The British Kingdoms, 1559-1603 | |
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| Reformers and Laypeople: Building a Religious Culture | |
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| Protestant Ministers Become a 'Profession' | |
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| Instilling Correct Doctrine | |
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| New Standards of 'Piety' and 'Godliness' | |
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| The Reformation's Ambiguous Relationship with 'Popular Culture' | |
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| Laypeople's Responses | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Abbreviations Used in the Notes | |
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| Notes | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Index | |