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| Acknowledgements | |
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| Introduction | |
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| A framework for teaching and learning | |
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| Learners and learning, classrooms and contexts | |
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| Introduction: issues for the language teacher | |
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| What do we know about how languages are learned? | |
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| The nature of input | |
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| The process of intake | |
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| The role of interaction in the classroom | |
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| The role of error | |
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| How do differences among learners affect learning processes and teaching procedures? | |
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| Aptitude | |
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| Learning style and learning strategies | |
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| Affective factors | |
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| Motivation for learning English | |
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| What factors of context should teachers take into account? | |
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| What roles can teachers and learners play in the learning process? | |
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| The teacher's roles and responsibilities | |
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| The learner's roles and responsibilities | |
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| What roles can learning materials play? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| The communicative classroom | |
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| Introduction: the concept of communicative language ability | |
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| What are the components of communicative language ability? | |
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| Linguistic competence | |
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| Pragmatic competence | |
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| Discourse competence | |
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| Strategic competence | |
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| Fluency | |
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| What are the issues for the communicative curriculum? | |
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| What are the implications for the communicative classroom? | |
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| What are communicative tasks and what are their roles in teaching and learning? | |
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| How can we manage a communicative classroom? | |
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| What does communicative language teaching imply for authenticity in the classroom? | |
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| What are the issues in applying a communicative approach in context? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Learner autonomy and learner training | |
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| Introduction: the self-directed learner | |
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| What do we know about the strategies of the 'good language learner'? | |
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| Types of learner strategy | |
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| Research into learner strategies | |
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| What insights can we gain from educational thinking on autonomous learning? | |
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| What are the implications for learner training in the classroom? | |
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| Activities which help learners to reflect on learning | |
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| Activities which train strategies and equip learners to be active | |
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| Activities which encourage learners to monitor and check their own progress | |
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| What role can self-access facilities play in language learning? | |
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| Are learner autonomy and learner training universally appropriate concepts? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Teaching the language system | |
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| Vocabulary | |
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| Introduction: the task of learning vocabulary | |
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| What do we know about the lexical system of English? | |
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| Denotative and connotative meaning | |
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| Meaning relations among words | |
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| How do second language learners acquire vocabulary? | |
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| Strategies for vocabulary learning | |
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| Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition | |
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| What are the implications for the teaching of vocabulary? | |
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| Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning | |
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| Encouraging the development of effective strategies | |
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| Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical inferencing | |
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| Teaching the effective use of dictionaries | |
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| Evaluating the vocabulary component of coursebooks | |
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| Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types | |
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| Developing resources for vocabulary teaching | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Grammar | |
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| Introduction: the role of grammar in English language teaching | |
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| What do we know about the learning of grammar? | |
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| Noticing | |
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| Reasoning and hypothesizing | |
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| Structuring and restructuring | |
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| Automatizing | |
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| What information can help us in the selection and presentation of grammar? | |
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| Grammar as meaning | |
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| Grammar in discourse | |
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| Grammar and style | |
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| What principles can guide us in the teaching of grammar? | |
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| Presenting grammar | |
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| Practising grammar | |
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| How can we design the grammar component of a course? | |
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| How can we suit approach to learner needs? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Developing the language skills | |
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| Reading | |
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| Introduction: making sense of a text | |
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| What do we know about the process of second language reading? | |
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| In what ways is reading an interactive process? | |
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| In what ways is reading a purposeful process? | |
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| In what ways is reading a critical process? | |
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| What is the role of extensive reading? | |
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| What are the implications for the teaching of reading? | |
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| How do we establish goals for the reading classroom? | |
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| What criteria do we use to select reading texts? | |
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| What kinds of tasks help to develop reading ability? | |
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| Can we help students to read critically? | |
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| How can we encourage extensive reading? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Listening | |
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| Introduction: the role of listening in the ELT curriculum | |
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| What do we know about the listening process? | |
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| Bottom-up processes in listening | |
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| Top-down processes in listening | |
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| Purposes for listening | |
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| What 'uncertainties' exist for foreign language listeners? | |
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| Uncertainties of confidence | |
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| Uncertainties deriving from the presentation of speech | |
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| Uncertainties because of gaps in the message | |
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| Uncertain strategies | |
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| Uncertainties of language | |
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| Uncertainties of content | |
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| Visual uncertainties | |
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| What are the implications for the English language classroom? | |
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| Creating reasons for listening | |
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| Selecting texts for listening | |
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| Designing listening activities for the classroom | |
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| Building confidence in listening to English | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Speaking | |
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| Introduction: skills and strategies in speaking English | |
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| What is involved in speaking English competently? | |
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| Distinguishing types of speaking situation | |
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| Making oneself understood | |
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| Managing interaction | |
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| What are the issues in teaching the phonological aspects of English? | |
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| Choosing a model for pronunciation teaching | |
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| Taking a holistic or atomistic approach | |
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| Selecting practice according to student need | |
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| What are the implications for classroom practice in the teaching of spoken English? | |
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| Talking with students about spoken English | |
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| Making accuracy-based practice meaningful | |
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| Designing and evaluating fluency-based activities | |
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| Providing a range and balance of activities in a course | |
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| Teaching the pronunciation component of a course | |
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| Treating error in the classroom | |
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| Managing classroom interaction | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Writing | |
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| Introduction: a contemporary writing classroom | |
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| What do we know about the process of writing? | |
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| What strategies do skilled writers use as they compose? | |
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| What activities characterize the writing process? | |
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| What are the implications of a process approach? | |
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| Helping students to generate ideas | |
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| Providing practice in planning | |
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| Contextualizing tasks to develop a sense of audience | |
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| Encouraging students in revision strategies | |
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| Supporting students with technology | |
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| Issues in introducing a process approach | |
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| How can we analyse and describe the structure of written texts? | |
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| What are the implications of a text-based approach to writing? | |
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| Helping students to identify their writing needs | |
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| Building awareness of discourse organization | |
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| Helping students to develop crafting skills | |
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| Enabling students to appreciate the criteria for an effective text | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Planning and assessing learning | |
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| Course design | |
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| Introduction: roles for the teacher in course design | |
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| What are the steps in course design? | |
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| Considering the students in their context of learning | |
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| Establishing goals and objectives | |
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| Planning the syllabus | |
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| Designing a course unit | |
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| What procedures can be helpful in evaluating courses? | |
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| What choices do teachers need to make in course design? | |
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| Choosing a textbook | |
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| Taking a process approach | |
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| Using projects in ELT | |
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| Negotiating with learners | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Classroom assessment | |
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| Introduction: assessment and testing | |
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| What is testing? | |
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| The structuralist influence | |
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| The communicative influence | |
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| What is the role of classroom assessment? | |
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| What purposes should classroom assessment have? | |
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| What kind of feedback is useful? | |
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| What assessment procedures are available? | |
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| What characterizes good assessment practice? | |
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| Are affective considerations relevant to assessment? | |
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| How can good assessment practice be framed? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Discussion topics and projects | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Notes on Introductory tasks | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Index | |