| |
| |
| About the Author | |
| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| National Unity and Diversity and the Language(s) We Speak | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| Changing Demographics | |
| |
| |
| Immigration | |
| |
| |
| Immigration: A Historical Perspective | |
| |
| |
| Other Demographic Factors | |
| |
| |
| Implications for Teachers | |
| |
| |
| A Changing National Narrative | |
| |
| |
| Unity, Diversity, and Language | |
| |
| |
| Language Parochialism | |
| |
| |
| Language Elitism | |
| |
| |
| Language Restrictionism | |
| |
| |
| Implications for Schooling | |
| |
| |
| Restrictions on Bilingual Programs | |
| |
| |
| Outcomes | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Historical and International Perspectives on Language Education | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| Historical Perspectives | |
| |
| |
| The Ancient World | |
| |
| |
| The Modern World | |
| |
| |
| Dual Language Instruction in the United States: A History | |
| |
| |
| The Nineteenth Century | |
| |
| |
| The Twentieth Century | |
| |
| |
| Multilingualism in the United States: Looking Forward | |
| |
| |
| Language Planning, Language Policy, and Schooling | |
| |
| |
| Language Suppression | |
| |
| |
| Language Revitalization | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aspects of Language | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| The Study of Language | |
| |
| |
| What Is Language? | |
| |
| |
| Subsystems of Language | |
| |
| |
| The Phonological System | |
| |
| |
| The Morphological System | |
| |
| |
| Syntax | |
| |
| |
| Semantics | |
| |
| |
| Pragmatics | |
| |
| |
| Other Aspects of Communication | |
| |
| |
| Implications for Teachers | |
| |
| |
| Language Attitudes | |
| |
| |
| Are Some Languages Better Than Others? | |
| |
| |
| Are Some Languages More Expressive Than Others? | |
| |
| |
| Language Varieties | |
| |
| |
| Standard | |
| |
| |
| Dialect | |
| |
| |
| Pidgins and Creoles | |
| |
| |
| Register | |
| |
| |
| Is It Slang? | |
| |
| |
| More Than One Language | |
| |
| |
| What Is Bilingualism? | |
| |
| |
| Code-Switching | |
| |
| |
| Bilingualism: A Handicap or a Talent? | |
| |
| |
| The Ebonics Debate | |
| |
| |
| Language Loss | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Language Development | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| First Language Development: Memorizing or Hypothesizing? | |
| |
| |
| Rule Finding | |
| |
| |
| First Language Development and Comprehensible Input | |
| |
| |
| Child-Directed Speech | |
| |
| |
| The Social and Cultural Contexts of Language Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| Input Modification | |
| |
| |
| Stages of First Language Development | |
| |
| |
| Order of Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| Children as Sociolinguists | |
| |
| |
| Second Language Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| The Effect of Age | |
| |
| |
| The Effect of Personality | |
| |
| |
| The Social Factors | |
| |
| |
| Integrative Models of Second Language Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| The Acquisition-Learning Distinction | |
| |
| |
| Language Learners and Language Speakers Interact | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web Resource | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dual Language Program Models | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| What Is a Program Model? | |
| |
| |
| Transitional Program Models | |
| |
| |
| Which Students Do Transitional Programs Serve? | |
| |
| |
| What Is the Goal of a Transitional Program? | |
| |
| |
| Transitional Programs: A Lot Better Than Nothing | |
| |
| |
| Maintenance and Enrichment Programs | |
| |
| |
| Immersion Programs | |
| |
| |
| The Results of Immersion: The Canadian Experience | |
| |
| |
| Immersion Programs in the United States | |
| |
| |
| Dual Language Instruction in Private Schools | |
| |
| |
| Bilingual Teachers | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Primary Language Instruction for English Learners | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| A Rationale for Primary Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| Transfer of Concepts and Skills | |
| |
| |
| How Does Transfer Work? | |
| |
| |
| Primary Language Development and Second Language Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| Students Need to Develop Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) | |
| |
| |
| Effects of Bilingualism on Achievement | |
| |
| |
| Primary Language Instruction and Self-Concept | |
| |
| |
| Overall, What Does the Research Indicate? | |
| |
| |
| If Primary Language Instruction, Then How? | |
| |
| |
| Separation of Languages | |
| |
| |
| Concurrent Translation | |
| |
| |
| Preview-Review | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Second Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| A Note About Terminology | |
| |
| |
| Early Viewpoints on Second Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| Grammar Translation | |
| |
| |
| The Search for Alternative Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Modern Approaches to Second Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| The Audiolingual Approach | |
| |
| |
| Other Recent Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Modifying Instruction for Second Language Learners | |
| |
| |
| Academic Language | |
| |
| |
| Linking Language to Content: A Rationale | |
| |
| |
| Linking Language and Content: How? | |
| |
| |
| Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP�) | |
| |
| |
| Literacy and Biliteracy | |
| |
| |
| What Is Literacy? | |
| |
| |
| Biliteracy | |
| |
| |
| How Can Teachers Support Biliteracy? | |
| |
| |
| Literacy and the Second Language Learner | |
| |
| |
| How Can Schools Promote Biliteracy? | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Assessment and English Learners | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| Testing Second Language Learners: General Issues | |
| |
| |
| Reliability | |
| |
| |
| Validity | |
| |
| |
| Content Bias | |
| |
| |
| Can You Eliminate Content Bias Using Translation? | |
| |
| |
| Construct Bias | |
| |
| |
| Procedure | |
| |
| |
| Norming | |
| |
| |
| Language Proficiency | |
| |
| |
| What Is Language Proficiency? | |
| |
| |
| Models of Language Proficiency | |
| |
| |
| Academic Language Proficiency | |
| |
| |
| How Is Language Proficiency Assessed? | |
| |
| |
| Standards-Based Language Proficiency Assessment | |
| |
| |
| The Need for Multidimensional Approaches to Assessment | |
| |
| |
| Standardized Achievement Testing | |
| |
| |
| Diagnostic Testing for Placement in Special Programs | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Legal Foundations of Dual Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| The Historical Context for Dual Language Instruction: World War II and Beyond | |
| |
| |
| World War II and Foreign Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| World War II and Civil Rights | |
| |
| |
| Brown v. the Board of Education (1954) | |
| |
| |
| The Civil Rights Movement and Dual Language Instruction | |
| |
| |
| Who Governs Education? | |
| |
| |
| Federal Involvement in Education | |
| |
| |
| The Bilingual Education Act (Title VII) | |
| |
| |
| Discretionary Funding | |
| |
| |
| Title VII and Policy | |
| |
| |
| Lau v. Nichols (1974) | |
| |
| |
| Interpretation of Lau | |
| |
| |
| Effects of Lau | |
| |
| |
| Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 | |
| |
| |
| No Child Left Behind | |
| |
| |
| NCLB Funding | |
| |
| |
| NCLB Pros and Cons | |
| |
| |
| State Laws Regarding Bilingual Education | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aspects of Culture | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| What Is Culture? | |
| |
| |
| What Are the Key Characteristics of Culture? | |
| |
| |
| Culture Is Dynamic | |
| |
| |
| Culture Is Creative | |
| |
| |
| Culture Is Continuous | |
| |
| |
| Culture Is Learned | |
| |
| |
| Culture Is Shared | |
| |
| |
| Culture Is a Struggle for Survival | |
| |
| |
| How Is Culture Manifested? | |
| |
| |
| Clothing and Decoration | |
| |
| |
| Housing | |
| |
| |
| Time Orientation | |
| |
| |
| Spatial Orientation | |
| |
| |
| Values | |
| |
| |
| Culture and Language | |
| |
| |
| What Is Multicultural Education? | |
| |
| |
| What Is the Connection Between Bilingual Education and Multicultural Education? | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Culture, Schooling, and Achievement | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Key Questions | |
| |
| |
| Explaining the Achievement Gap: Four Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Genetic Inferiority | |
| |
| |
| Cultural Deficit | |
| |
| |
| Cultural Mismatch | |
| |
| |
| Contextual Interaction | |
| |
| |
| Status, Power, and School Success | |
| |
| |
| Contextual Interaction as a Solution to Differential Achievement | |
| |
| |
| What Teachers Can Do | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Questions to Think About and Discuss | |
| |
| |
| Activities | |
| |
| |
| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Web and Media Resources | |
| |
| |
| Bibliography | |
| |
| |
| Index | |