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| About the Author | |
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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| The Basics (math, waves, etc.) for the Nonphysical Scientist | |
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| General Properties of Waves and Coordinates | |
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| Trigonometry | |
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| Imaginary Numbers | |
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| The Exponential e | |
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| Infinite Series | |
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| Differentiation | |
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| Integration | |
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| Differential Equations | |
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| Vectors and Scalars | |
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| Unit Vector | |
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| Scalar and Vector Fields | |
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| Matrices and Linear Algebra | |
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| Waves | |
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| Combining Waves of Two Wavelengths | |
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| Fourier Series and Integrals | |
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| Fourier Series | |
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| Fourier Integral | |
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| Dirac Delta Function | |
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| Miscellaneous Basic Physics | |
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| References | |
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| Light and Electromagnetic Waves | |
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| General | |
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| Electromagnetic Spectrum | |
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| Vector Calculus | |
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| Divergence | |
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| Curl | |
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| Gradient | |
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| Maxwell's Equations | |
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| Faraday's Law | |
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| Gauss's Law for Electrical Fields | |
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| Gauss's Law for a Magnetic Field | |
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| Ampere's Law | |
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| Polarization | |
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| Reflection | |
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| Refraction | |
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| Optical Components | |
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| Lens | |
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| Grin Lens | |
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| Optical Fiber | |
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| Energy Propagation | |
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| Doppler Shifts | |
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| References | |
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| Light in Matter | |
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| Oscillating Dipole Moment | |
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| Dispersion | |
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| Absorption | |
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| Scattering | |
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| Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Interference, Coherence, Diffraction, and Transfer Functions | |
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| Coherence and Interference | |
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| Coherence | |
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| Interferometry and die Michelson Interferometer | |
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| Partial Coherence Using a Source with Continuous Frequencies | |
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| Diffraction | |
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| Huygens and Huygens-Fresnel Principle | |
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| Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction | |
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| Diffraction Limited | |
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| Convolution and Transfer Functions | |
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| Transfer Function | |
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| References | |
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| Optical Coherence Tomography Theory | |
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| General | |
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| Time Domain OCT (TD-OCT) | |
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| Interferometry with a Monochromatic Source | |
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| Low Coherence Interferometry with OCT | |
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| Determination of Axial Resolution | |
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| Transfer Function | |
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| Dispersion | |
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| Lateral Resolution | |
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| Light Beam | |
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| Paraxial Wave Equation | |
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| Relationship between the Paraboloidal and Gaussian Wave | |
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| The Gaussian Wave | |
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| Properties of a Gaussian Wave | |
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| Important Points of a Gaussian Beam Relevant to OCT | |
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| Speckle | |
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| Spectral Radar or Fourier Domain OCT (FD-OCT) | |
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| Swept Source (SS-OCT) | |
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| The Resolution | |
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| References | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Optoelectronics and Optical Components | |
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| General | |
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| Sources | |
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| Semiconductor Sources | |
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| Femtosecond Lasers | |
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| Doped Fiber Amplifiers | |
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| Wavelength Scanning | |
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| Interferometers | |
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| Delay Lines | |
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| Galvonometer Retroreflector | |
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| Piezoelectric Fiber Stretcher | |
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| Grating Based Delay Lines | |
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| Rotating Elements | |
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| Detectors | |
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| CCD | |
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| Detection Electronics | |
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| TD-OCT | |
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| FD-OCT | |
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| A-D Conversion/Frame Grabbers | |
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| Light Delivery Devices | |
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| Rotational Catheters/Guidewires | |
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| Translational Devices | |
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| Forward Imaging | |
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| MEMS | |
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| References | |
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| Noise and System Performance with TD-OCT and SD-OCT | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Noise | |
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| Overview | |
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| Noise in CCD versus Photodiode | |
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| A-D Conversion in SD-OCT and TD-OCT | |
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| Embodiment and Theory | |
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| TD-OCT | |
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| SD-OCT | |
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| Detector Array Signal Integration | |
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| SS-OCT | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Polarization and Polarization Sensitive OCT | |
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| General | |
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| Polarization Properties of Tissue | |
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| Collagen | |
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| Single Detector PS-OCT | |
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| SDPS-OCT Theoretical Model | |
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| Simulations with Layered Birefringent Phantoms | |
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| Varying Differential Group Index (Layer Birefringence) | |
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| Different Intra-Layer Medium | |
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| Varying Layer Concentration | |
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| Periodical Rotation of Polarization State in Reference Arm | |
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| Use of the Fast Fourier Transform | |
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| SDPS-OCT of Human Tissue | |
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| Dual Detector PS-OCT | |
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| Measurement of the Stokes Vector, Mueller Matrix, and Poincare's Sphere | |
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| References | |
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| Adjuvant Techniques: Absorption Spectroscopy, Contrast Probes, Phase Contrast, Elastography, and Entangled Photons | |
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| General | |
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| Absorption Spectroscopy | |
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| Absorption | |
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| Intrinsic Absorption | |
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| Dual Source | |
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| Single Source Same Frequency (Spectroscopic OCT) | |
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| Second Harmonic Generation | |
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| OCT Dyes/Probes | |
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| Elastography | |
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| Basic Concepts | |
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| Ultrasound Elastography | |
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| OCT Elastography | |
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| Limitations of the Elastography Techniques | |
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| Differential Phase Measurements | |
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| Embodiment | |
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| Limitations | |
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| Entangled Photons | |
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| General | |
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| Entangled States Generation | |
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| Interference Experiments | |
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| Ghost Imaging | |
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| Entanglement and OCT | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography | |
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| The Principle of Doppler OCT | |
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| Doppler Shift and Laser Doppler Velocimetry | |
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| Optical Signal Evolution in Doppler OCT | |
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| Interferogram Detection in Doppler OCT | |
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| Signal Processing in Doppler OCT | |
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| Signal Processing in Time Domain Doppler OCT | |
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| Signal Processing in Spectral Domain Doppler OCT | |
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| Applications of Doppler OCT | |
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| References | |
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| Digital Image Processing Techniques for Speckle Reduction, Enhancement, and Segmentation of Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Images | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Speckle Reduction Techniques | |
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| Mean, Median, and Hybrid Median Filters | |
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| Adaptive Filtering | |
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| Other Techniques | |
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| Evaluation of Image Enhancement Results | |
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| Image Segmentation Techniques | |
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| Thresholding | |
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| Region Growing | |
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| Watershed Algorithm | |
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| Edge-Based Segmentation Techniques | |
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| Other Segmentation Techniques | |
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| Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Application of OCT to Clinical Imaging: Introduction | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Areas Where OCT Shows Promise as a Clinical Imaging Device | |
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| When Biopsy Cannot Be Performed | |
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| Where Sampling Errors with Conventional Biopsy Are Likely | |
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| Guiding Surgical and Microsurgical Procedures | |
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| Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of In Vitro Pathology | |
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| Factors That Influence Decisions on the Clinical Relevance of OCT | |
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| OCT Imaging of Human Tissue | |
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| Methods for Validating the Structure in OCT Images | |
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| General | |
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| Histopathology | |
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| Immunohistochemistry | |
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| Enzymatic Assay | |
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| High-Performance Liquid Chromatography | |
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| Scanning Electron Microscopy | |
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| Animal Models | |
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| Justification of Need for Animals | |
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| Justification for the Species | |
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| Justification of the Total Number of Animals | |
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| Drugs and Their Dosages Used for Anesthesia and Euthanasia | |
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| Will the Animal Experience Discomfort and Is a Survival Model Utilized? | |
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| Use of Experienced Personnel | |
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| Registration | |
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| Example Rat Protocol | |
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| Statistical Analysis | |
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| Role of Human Perception on Image Interpretation | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Other Technologies | |
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| General | |
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| Structural Imaging | |
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| Confocal Microscopy | |
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| High Frequency Ultrasound | |
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| Magnetic Response Imaging | |
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| Computer Tomography | |
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| Light-Scattering Spectroscopy | |
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| Spectroscopic Techniques | |
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| Fluorescence | |
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| Two-Photon Laser Scanning Microscopy | |
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| Near Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy | |
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| Raman Scattering | |
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| References | |
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| Introduction to Clinical Research Design and Analysis | |
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| Elements of Study Design | |
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| Choosing a Primary Research Question | |
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| Descriptive versus Analytical Studies | |
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| Threats to Validity | |
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| Random Variability | |
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| Bias | |
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| Confounding | |
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| Effect Modification | |
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| Evaluating Threats to Validity | |
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| Choice of Study Design | |
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| Randomized, Blinded, Controlled Clinical Trials | |
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| Other Study Designs | |
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| Longitudinal Studies | |
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| Cohort Studies | |
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| Cross-Sectional Studies | |
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| Case-Control Studies | |
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| Nested Case-Control Studies | |
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| Secondary Data | |
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| Diagnostic Test Evaluation | |
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| Elements of Data Analysis | |
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| Types of Numerical Data | |
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| Summarizing and Describing Data | |
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| Variability in Data | |
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| Making an Inference from Data | |
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| Common Statistical Tests for Comparing Two Groups | |
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| Power and Sample Size | |
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| Evaluating Relationships among Continuous Measurements | |
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| Multivariate Models | |
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| References | |
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| OCT in Cardiovascular Medicine | |
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| General | |
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| Acute Coronary Syndromes | |
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| General | |
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| Epidemiology | |
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| Coronary Circulation | |
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| Classification of Plaque | |
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| Unstable Plaque Histopathology | |
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| Triggers of Plaque Rupture | |
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| Interventions | |
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| Imaging Modalities | |
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| OCT for Coronary Imaging | |
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| Limitations | |
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| Current State of Intravascular OCT Imaging | |
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| Current OCT Markers for In Vivo Studies | |
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| Potential Additional OCT Markers | |
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| Technological Investigations | |
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| Other Coronary Areas | |
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| Stroke | |
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| General | |
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| Epidemiology | |
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| Risk Factors | |
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| Cerebral Circulation | |
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| Carotid Plaque | |
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| Imaging Approaches | |
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| Treatment | |
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| Pulmonary Hypertension | |
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| Atrial Fibrillation | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| OCT in the Musculoskeletal Disease | |
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| Osteoarthritis | |
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| General | |
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| Cartilage Structure | |
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| Osteoarthritis Cartilage | |
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| Knee Anatomy | |
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| Current Imaging Modalities | |
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| Serum and Urine Markers | |
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| Chondroprotection and Cartilage Repair | |
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| In Vitro and In Vivo Human Data | |
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| Current OA Animal Models | |
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| Canine Anterior Cruciate Ligament Transection Model | |
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| Rabbit Partial Medial Meniscectomy | |
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| Rabbit ACLT | |
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| Guinea Pigs | |
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| Rats | |
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| Mice | |
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| Assessing Cartilage OA with OCT in the Rat | |
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| Tendon/Ligaments | |
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| General Ligaments and Tendons | |
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| OCT Imaging of Tendons and Ligaments | |
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| Achilles Tendinopathy | |
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| Shoulder Pain | |
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| Other Potential Applications | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| OCT in Oncology | |
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| General | |
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| Epidemiology of Cancer | |
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| Need for a Diagnostic Imaging Technique | |
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| Epithelium | |
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| Esophageal Cancer | |
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| General | |
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| Adenocarcinoma of the Esophagus | |
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| Squamous Cell Carcinoma | |
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| Gastric Cancer | |
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| Epidemiology | |
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| Risk Factors | |
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| Staging | |
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| Diagnosis | |
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| Bladder Cancer | |
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| Epidemiology | |
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| Staging | |
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| Diagnosis | |
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| Lung Cancer | |
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| Epidemiology | |
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| Risk Factors | |
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| Histopathology | |
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| Staging System | |
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| Treatment | |
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| Screening | |
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| Sclerosing Cholangitis and Cholangiocarcinoma | |
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| Epidemiology | |
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| Diagnosis | |
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| Cervical Cancer | |
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| Epidemiology/Histology | |
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| Staging | |
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| Diagnosis | |
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| Treatment | |
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| Other Potential Applications | |
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| General | |
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| Colon Cancer | |
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| Postmenopausal Bleeding and Endometrial Carcinoma | |
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| Breast Cancer | |
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| Skin Cancer | |
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| Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers | |
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| Assessing Pathological Samples | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Other Applications and Conclusions | |
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| General | |
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| Dentistry | |
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| General | |
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| Anatomy and Histology | |
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| Dental Caries | |
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| Minimally Invasive Treatments | |
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| Diagnosing Caries | |
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| OCT and Dental | |
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| Limitations | |
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| Prostate Surgical Guidance | |
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| General | |
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| Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy | |
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| Treatment | |
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| OCT and BPH | |
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| |
| Nerve Repair | |
| |
| |
| |
| General | |
| |
| |
| |
| Repair | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diagnostics | |
| |
| |
| |
| OCT and Nerve Repair | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vascular Repair | |
| |
| |
| |
| General | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vessel Re-anastomosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| OCT and Arterial Repair | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neurosurgery | |
| |
| |
| |
| General | |
| |
| |
| |
| Brain Tumors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Imaging Brain Tumors | |
| |
| |
| |
| OCT and Brain Tumor Resection | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of OCT in Assessing Subfertility | |
| |
| |
| |
| General | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Oviduct | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oviduct Pathology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Infertility Testing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Treatment | |
| |
| |
| |
| OCT and Imaging the Fallopian Tubes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |