| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The context | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to the concepts and the structure of this book | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinates and reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Earth - geoid and ellipsoid | |
| |
| |
| |
| The geoid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Models of the shape of the Earth - the ellipsoid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinate systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinate system attributes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinate systems for the sphere and ellipsoid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geocentric Cartesian coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conversion between ellipsoidal and geocentric Cartesian coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Map projection coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cartesian coordinates for engineering applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gravity-related systems (height and depth) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Miscellaneous coordinate systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Datums and coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Datum overview and classification | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geodetic datums and coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Projected coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vertical systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Engineering datums and coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Image datums and coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Compound coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinate reference system identification | |
| |
| |
| |
| CRS description | |
| |
| |
| |
| Registers of coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Map Projections | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Map projections: fundamental concepts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Grids and graticules | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scale factor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Developable surfaces | |
| |
| |
| |
| Preserved features | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spheres and ellipsoids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cylindrical projections | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cylindrical equidistant | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cylindrical equal area | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Mercator projection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transverse Mercator | |
| |
| |
| |
| South-oriented Transverse Mercator | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oblique Mercator | |
| |
| |
| |
| Azimuthal projections | |
| |
| |
| |
| General azimuthal | |
| |
| |
| |
| Azimuthal equidistant | |
| |
| |
| |
| Azimuthal equal area | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stereographic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gnomonic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Azimuthal orthographic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Azimuthal perspective projection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conic projections | |
| |
| |
| |
| General conic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conic equidistant | |
| |
| |
| |
| Albers equal area | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lambert Conformal Conic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oblique conic | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-geometric projection methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary of information required | |
| |
| |
| |
| Map projection method formulae | |
| |
| |
| |
| Map projection parameter values | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computations within map projections | |
| |
| |
| |
| Designing a map projection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| General characteristics of transformations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformations and conversions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation multiplicity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation accuracy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation reversibility | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformations between geocentric coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Three parameter geocentric transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Seven parameter geocentric transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ten parameter geocentric transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformations between geographic coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molodensky and Abridged Molodensky | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geographic offsets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Grid interpolation - NTv2 and NADCON | |
| |
| |
| |
| Indirect transformation between geographic coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation of 2D plane coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Compatibility of coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Similarity transformation method | |
| |
| |
| |
| Affine transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polynomials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Creating overlays in Google Earth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation of GPS data onto a local site grid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Indirect transformations between projected coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinate operations for vertical coordinate reference systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vertical offsets | |
| |
| |
| |
| The hub concept | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation between ellipsoidal and gravity-related heights | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geoid models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Height correction models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformations involving compound coordinate reference systems (CRSs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selecting a transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Officially sanctioned transformations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selecting from a transformation repository | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deriving your own transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Choice of transformation method | |
| |
| |
| |
| Availability of control points | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geometric issues | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effect of ignoring geoid-ellipsoid separation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evaluating results of the transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Global Navigation Satellite Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Positioning with codes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Differential GNSS and augmentation systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| GNSS measurements using phase observations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coordinate reference system considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Case Studies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation of GPS data into a local coordinate reference system | |
| |
| |
| |
| Creation of a three-parameter geocentric transformation from an official national transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Designing a map projection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Calculations using map grid coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Creating overlays in Google Earth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Terminology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computations with spherical coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic geometry of the ellipsoid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radii of curvature of the ellipsoid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Normal sections and geodesics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Forward computation of coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reverse computation of azimuth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of points on the geodesic | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Molodensky equations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of transformation parameter values by least squares | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction and least squares terminology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Two dimensional transformations of Cartesian coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Similarity transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The affine transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Second order polynomials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Three-dimensional transformations of Cartesian coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| The seven-parameter transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The ten-parameter geocentric transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Subsets of the seven-parameter geocentric transformation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Worked example | |
| |
| |
| References & Further Reading | |
| |
| |
| Index | |