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| Preface | |
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| About the Authors | |
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| The Nature of Human Language | |
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| What Is Language? | |
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| Linguistic Knowledge | |
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| Knowledge of the Sound System | |
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| Knowledge of Words | |
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| Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning | |
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| The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge | |
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| Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences | |
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| Linguistic Knowledge and Performance | |
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| What Is Grammar? | |
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| Descriptive Grammars | |
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| Prescriptive Grammars | |
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| Teaching Grammars | |
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| Language Universals | |
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| The Development of Grammar | |
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| Sign Languages: Evidence for the Innateness of Language | |
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| American Sign Language | |
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| Animal "Languages" | |
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| "Talking" Parrots | |
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| The Birds and the Bees | |
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| Language and Thought | |
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| What We Know about Language | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Brain and Language | |
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| The Human Brain | |
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| The Localization of Language in the Brain | |
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| Aphasia | |
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| Brain Imaging Technology | |
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| Brain Plasticity and Lateralization in Early Life | |
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| Split Brains | |
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| Other Experimental Evidence of Brain Organization | |
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| The Autonomy of Language | |
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| Other Dissociations of Language and Cognition | |
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| Laura | |
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| Christopher | |
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| Genetic Basis of Language | |
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| Language and Brain Development | |
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| The Critical Period | |
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| A Critical Period for Bird Song | |
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| The Evolution of Language | |
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| In the Beginning: The Origin of Language | |
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| God's Gift to Mankind? | |
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| The First Language | |
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| Human Invention or the Cries of Nature? | |
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| The Development of Language in the Species | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Grammatical Aspects of Language | |
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| Morphology: The Words of Language | |
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| Dictionaries | |
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| Content Words and Function Words | |
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| Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning | |
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| Bound and Free Morphemes | |
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| Prefixes and Suffixes | |
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| Infixes | |
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| Circumfixes | |
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| Roots and Stems | |
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| Huckles and Ceives | |
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| Rules of Word Formation | |
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| Derivational Morphology | |
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| The Hierarchical Structure of Words | |
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| More about Derivational Morphemes | |
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| Lexical Gaps | |
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| Rule Productivity | |
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| "Pullet Surprises" | |
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| Sign Language Morphology | |
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| Word Coinage | |
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| Words from Names | |
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| Back-Formations | |
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| Compounds | |
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| Meaning of Compounds | |
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| Universality of Compounding | |
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| Blends | |
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| Reduced Words | |
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| Inflectional Morphemes | |
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| Exceptions and Suppletions | |
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| Morphology and Syntax | |
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| Morphological Analysis: Identifying Morphemes | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language | |
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| What the Syntax Rules Do | |
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| What Grammaticality Is Not Based On | |
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| Sentence Structure | |
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| Constituents and Constituency Tests | |
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| Syntactic Categories | |
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| Phrase Structure Trees and Rules | |
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| Some Conventions for Building Phrase Structure Trees | |
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| The Infinity of Language | |
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| Heads and Complements | |
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| Selection | |
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| What Heads the Sentence | |
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| Structural Ambiguities | |
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| More Structures | |
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| Sentence Relatedness | |
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| Transformational Rules | |
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| Structure-Dependent Rules | |
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| Syntactic Dependencies | |
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| Wh Questions | |
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| UG Principles and Parameters | |
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| Sign Language Syntax | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The Meaning of Language | |
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| What Speakers Know about Sentence Meaning | |
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| Truth | |
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| Entailment and Related Notions | |
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| Ambiguity | |
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| Compositional Semantics | |
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| Semantic Rules | |
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| Semantic Rule I | |
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| Semantic Rule II | |
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| When Compositionality Goes Awry | |
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| Anomaly | |
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| Metaphor | |
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| Idioms | |
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| Lexical Semantics (Word Meanings) | |
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| Theories of Word Meaning | |
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| Reference | |
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| Sense | |
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| Lexical Relations | |
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| Semantic Features | |
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| Evidence for Semantic Features | |
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| Semantic Features and Grammar | |
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| Argument Structure | |
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| Thematic Roles | |
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| Pragmatics | |
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| Pronouns | |
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| Pronouns and Syntax | |
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| Pronouns and Discourse | |
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| Deixis | |
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| More on Situational Context | |
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| Maxims of Conversation | |
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| Implicatures | |
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| Speech Acts | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Phonetics: The Sounds of Language | |
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| Sound Segments | |
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| Identity of Speech Sounds | |
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| The Phonetic Alphabet | |
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| Articulatory Phonetics | |
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| Consonants | |
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| Places of Articulation | |
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| Manner of Articulation | |
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| Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants | |
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| Vowels | |
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| Lip Rounding | |
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| Diphthongs | |
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| Nasalization of Vowels | |
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| Tense and Lax Vowels | |
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| Different (Tongue) Strokes for Different Folks | |
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| Major Phonetic Classes | |
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| Noncontinuants and Continuants | |
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| Obstruents and Sonorants | |
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| Consonantal | |
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| Syllabic Sounds | |
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| Prosodic Features | |
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| Tone and Intonation | |
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| Phonetic Symbols and Spelling Correspondences | |
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| The "Phonetics" of Signed Languages | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language | |
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| The Pronunciation of Morphemes | |
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| The Pronunciation of Plurals | |
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| Additional Examples of Allomorphs | |
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| Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language | |
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| Vowel Nasalization in English as an Illustration of Allophones | |
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| Allophones of /t/ | |
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| Minimal Pairs in ASL | |
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| Complementary Distribution | |
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| Distinctive Features of Phonemes | |
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| Feature Values | |
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| Nondistinctive Features | |
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| Phonemic Patterns May Vary Across Languages | |
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| Natural Classes of Speech Sounds | |
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| Feature Specifications for American English Consonants and Vowels | |
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| The Rules of Phonology | |
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| Assimilation Rules | |
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| Dissimilation Rules | |
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| Feature-Changing Rules | |
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| Segment Insertion and Deletion Rules | |
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| Movement (Metathesis) Rules | |
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| From One to Many and from Many to One | |
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| The Function of Phonological Rules | |
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| Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules | |
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| Prosodic Phonology | |
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| Syllable Structure | |
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| Word Stress | |
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| Sentence and Phrase Stress | |
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| Intonation | |
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| Sequential Constraints of Phonemes | |
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| Lexical Gaps | |
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| Why Do Phonological Rules Exist? | |
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| Phonological Analysis: Discovering Phonemes | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The Psychology of Language | |
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| Language Acquisition | |
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| Mechanisms of Language Acquisition | |
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| Do Children Learn through Imitation? | |
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| Do Children Learn through Reinforcement? | |
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| Do Children Learn Language through Analogy? | |
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| Do Children Learn through Structured Input? | |
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| Children Construct Grammars | |
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| The Innateness Hypothesis | |
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| Stages in Language Acquisition | |
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| The Perception and Production of Speech Sounds | |
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| First Words | |
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| The Development of Grammar | |
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| The Acquisition of Phonology | |
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| The Acquisition of Word Meaning | |
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| The Acquisition of Morphology | |
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| The Acquisition of Syntax | |
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| The Acquisition of Pragmatics | |
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| The Development of Auxiliaries: A Case Study | |
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| Setting Parameters | |
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| The Acquisition of Signed Languages | |
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| Knowing More Than One Language | |
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| Childhood Bilingualism | |
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| Theories of Bilingual Development | |
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| Two Monolinguals in One Head | |
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| The Role of Input | |
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| Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism | |
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| Second Language Acquisition | |
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| Is L2 Acquisition the Same as L1 Acquisition? | |
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| Native Language Influence in L2 Acquisition | |
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| The Creative Component of L2 Acquisition | |
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| Is There a Critical Period for L2 Acquisition? | |
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| Second-Language Teaching Methods | |
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| Can Chimps Learn Human Language? | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Language Processing: Humans and Computers | |
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| The Human Mind at Work: Human Language Processing | |
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| Comprehension | |
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| The Speech Signal | |
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| Speech Perception and Comprehension | |
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| Bottom-up and Top-down Models | |
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| Lexical Access and Word Recognition | |
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| Syntactic Processing | |
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| Speech Production | |
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| Planning Units | |
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| Lexical Selection | |
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| Application and Misapplication of Rules | |
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| Nonlinguistic Influences | |
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| Computer Processing of Human Language | |
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| Frequency Analysis, Concordances, and Collocations | |
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| Information Retrieval and Summarization | |
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| Spell Checkers | |
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| Machine Translation | |
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| Computers That Talk and Listen | |
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| Computational Phonetics and Phonology | |
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| Computational Morphology | |
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| Computational Syntax | |
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| Computational Semantics | |
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| Computational Pragmatics | |
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| Computer Models of Grammar | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Language and Society | |
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| Language in Society | |
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| Dialects | |
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| Regional Dialects | |
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| Accents | |
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| Dialects of English | |
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| Social Dialects | |
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| The "Standard" | |
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| African American English | |
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| Latino (Hispanic) English | |
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| Genderlects | |
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| Sociolinguistic Analysis | |
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| Languages in Contact | |
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| Lingua Francas | |
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| Pidgins | |
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| Creoles | |
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| Language in Use | |
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| Styles | |
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| Slang | |
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| Jargon and Argot | |
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| Taboo or Not Taboo? | |
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| Euphemisms | |
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| Racial and National Epithets | |
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| Language and Sexism | |
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| Marked and Unmarked Forms | |
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| The Generic "He" | |
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| Secret Languages and Language Games | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Language Change: The Syllables of Time | |
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| The Regularity of Sound Change | |
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| Sound Correspondences | |
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| Ancestral Protolanguages | |
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| Phonological Change | |
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| Phonological Rules | |
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| The Great Vowel Shift | |
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| Morphological Change | |
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| Syntactic Change | |
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| Lexical Change | |
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| Addition of New Words | |
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| Borrowings or Loan Words | |
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| History through Loan Words | |
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| Loss of Words | |
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| Semantic Change | |
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| Broadening | |
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| Narrowing | |
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| Meaning Shifts | |
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| Reconstructing "Dead" Languages | |
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| The Nineteenth-Century Comparativists | |
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| Cognates | |
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| Comparative Reconstruction | |
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| Historical Evidence | |
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| Extinct and Endangered Languages | |
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| The Genetic Classification of Languages | |
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| Languages of the World | |
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| Types of Languages | |
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| Why Do Languages Change? | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Writing: The ABCs of Language | |
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| The History of Writing | |
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| Pictograms and Ideograms | |
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| Cuneiform Writing | |
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| The Rebus Principle | |
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| From Hieroglyphics to the Alphabet | |
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| Modern Writing Systems | |
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| Word Writing | |
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| Syllabic Writing | |
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| Consonantal Alphabet Writing | |
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| Alphabetic Writing | |
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| Reading, Writing, and Speech | |
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| Reading | |
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| Spelling | |
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| Spelling Pronunciations | |
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| Summary | |
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| References for Further Reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Index | |