| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
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| Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Study of Biological Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| A Time for Everything | |
| |
| |
| Three Rhythm Domains | |
| |
| |
| Implications of Body Clocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Accidents and Catastrophes | |
| |
| |
| Chronobiology: An Integrating Discipline | |
| |
| |
| Chapters in This Book | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Features of Rhythms: Terminology and Characteristics | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Details of a Rhythm | |
| |
| |
| Period and Frequency | |
| |
| |
| Circadian Domain | |
| |
| |
| |
| Use of the term "Circadian" | |
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| |
| Other Domains | |
| |
| |
| |
| Time on Earth as We Know It | |
| |
| |
| Amplitude | |
| |
| |
| Phase | |
| |
| |
| Genetics and Inheritance | |
| |
| |
| Period | |
| |
| |
| Amplitude and Phase | |
| |
| |
| Primary Circadian Clocks | |
| |
| |
| The Brain | |
| |
| |
| SCN Identification | |
| |
| |
| SCN as Synchronizer | |
| |
| |
| Retinal Melanopsin | |
| |
| |
| Retinohypothalamic Tract | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of the Period | |
| |
| |
| Stability and Free-Running | |
| |
| |
| Frequency Multiplication/Demultiplication | |
| |
| |
| Light Quality | |
| |
| |
| Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Chemicals | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of the Amplitude | |
| |
| |
| Damping | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of the Phase | |
| |
| |
| Synchronizers | |
| |
| |
| Phase-Shifting by Light | |
| |
| |
| Phase Shifts by Chemicals or Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Phase-Response Curve | |
| |
| |
| Masking | |
| |
| |
| Need for a Cyclic Environment | |
| |
| |
| In Darwin's Footsteps | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Ultradian Experiment: Circumnutation | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Circadian Experiment: Leaf Movements | |
| |
| |
| Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physical and Biological Time | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Rotations and Revolutions of the Earth and Moon | |
| |
| |
| The Day | |
| |
| |
| The Year | |
| |
| |
| The Month | |
| |
| |
| Clocks and Calendars: Ancient Times | |
| |
| |
| The Month and Year | |
| |
| |
| The Day | |
| |
| |
| The Week | |
| |
| |
| Clocks and Calendars: Middle Ages to Now | |
| |
| |
| Longitude and Clocks | |
| |
| |
| Springs to Atoms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wristwatches | |
| |
| |
| Time Zones | |
| |
| |
| Daylight Saving Time | |
| |
| |
| Recording Date and Time | |
| |
| |
| Recording Biological Time | |
| |
| |
| The 24-h Biological Clock Concept | |
| |
| |
| Early Studies | |
| |
| |
| Considerations | |
| |
| |
| Ultradian and Infradian Clocks | |
| |
| |
| Endogenous vs. Exogenous | |
| |
| |
| Comparison with Manufactured Clocks | |
| |
| |
| Evolution of the Clock | |
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| |
| Molecular Building Blocks | |
| |
| |
| Geological History and Rhythmic Components | |
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| |
| Adaptation to Avoid Harmful Light | |
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| |
| Ancestral Traits and Convergent Evolution | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photoperiodism | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Daylight and Seasons | |
| |
| |
| Photoperiodism: The Process | |
| |
| |
| Response Types | |
| |
| |
| Critical Daylength | |
| |
| |
| Diversity of Responses | |
| |
| |
| Early Studies | |
| |
| |
| Latitude | |
| |
| |
| Light and Photoreceptive Regions | |
| |
| |
| Extraretinal Photoreceptors | |
| |
| |
| Pigments | |
| |
| |
| Cryptochromes | |
| |
| |
| Spectra | |
| |
| |
| Rhythmic Association | |
| |
| |
| Endogenous Oscillators | |
| |
| |
| Bunning's Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| Phase-Response Curves | |
| |
| |
| Ultradian Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Circannual Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Bird Migration | |
| |
| |
| Deer Antlers | |
| |
| |
| Vernalization | |
| |
| |
| Photoperiodism and Humans | |
| |
| |
| Birth Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Indoor vs. Outdoor Light | |
| |
| |
| Disorders | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biological Oscillators and Timers: Models and Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Approaches to Models and Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Models | |
| |
| |
| Pendulum | |
| |
| |
| Hourglass | |
| |
| |
| External Coincidence | |
| |
| |
| Hands of a Clock | |
| |
| |
| Mathematical Models | |
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| |
| Differential Equations | |
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| |
| Limit Cycles and Topography | |
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| |
| Chaos | |
| |
| |
| Spatiotemporal Systems | |
| |
| |
| Biochemical and Metabolic Models | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Systems | |
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| |
| Biochemical Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selected Biochemical Notes | |
| |
| |
| Glycolytic Oscillations | |
| |
| |
| Nucleotides and Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| Membrane Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Membranes and the Phospholipid Bilayer | |
| |
| |
| Lipids and Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Transport and Feedback | |
| |
| |
| Molecular Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| From Genes to Proteins and Mutants | |
| |
| |
| Genes and Nomenclature | |
| |
| |
| Clock Mutations | |
| |
| |
| Circadian: System and Clock | |
| |
| |
| Transcription/Translation Feedback Loops | |
| |
| |
| Light | |
| |
| |
| Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Five Circadian Clocks | |
| |
| |
| Neurospora Circadian Clock | |
| |
| |
| Advantages | |
| |
| |
| Overt Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Genetic Highlights | |
| |
| |
| Feedback Loops and Components | |
| |
| |
| Drosophila Circadian Clock | |
| |
| |
| Advantages | |
| |
| |
| Overt Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Genetic Highlights | |
| |
| |
| Feedback Loops and Components | |
| |
| |
| Mammalian Circadian Clock | |
| |
| |
| Advantages | |
| |
| |
| Overt Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Genetic Highlights | |
| |
| |
| Feedback Loops and Components | |
| |
| |
| Arabidopsis Circadian Clock | |
| |
| |
| Advantages | |
| |
| |
| Overt Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Genetic Highlights | |
| |
| |
| Feedback Loops and Components | |
| |
| |
| Cyanobacteria Circadian Clock | |
| |
| |
| Advantages | |
| |
| |
| Overt Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Genetic Highlights | |
| |
| |
| Feedback Loops and Components | |
| |
| |
| Models in Perspective | |
| |
| |
| Generalized Schematic Model for Biological Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tidal and Lunar Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Moon and Light | |
| |
| |
| Moon and Tides | |
| |
| |
| High and Low Tides | |
| |
| |
| Spring and Neap Tides | |
| |
| |
| Earth Tide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Earth Tides | |
| |
| |
| Marine Organisms | |
| |
| |
| Circatidal Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Crab Activity | |
| |
| |
| Circadian vs. Circatidal | |
| |
| |
| Other Organisms | |
| |
| |
| Reproduction | |
| |
| |
| Color Change | |
| |
| |
| Terrestrial Organisms | |
| |
| |
| The Menstrual Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Atmospheric Tides | |
| |
| |
| Insects | |
| |
| |
| Plants | |
| |
| |
| Lunar/Tidal Clock Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
| Circadian vs. Circalunidian | |
| |
| |
| Interacting Oscillators? | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sexuality and Reproduction | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Parasexuality | |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Division and Genetics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mitosis, Meiosis, and the Punnett Square | |
| |
| |
| Sex and Reproduction: The Difference | |
| |
| |
| |
| Artificial Hybridization and How Sex Produces both "Lunch" and an Embryo | |
| |
| |
| Asexual Reproduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Abbreviated Life History of Neurospora crassa | |
| |
| |
| Courtship and Mating | |
| |
| |
| Photoperiodism and Sexuality | |
| |
| |
| Diet | |
| |
| |
| Flowers | |
| |
| |
| Rhythmic Phases of Sexual Behavior in Humans | |
| |
| |
| Activity | |
| |
| |
| Disease | |
| |
| |
| The Menstrual Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Duration and Phase | |
| |
| |
| |
| Brief Physiology of Menstrual Cycle Events and Phases | |
| |
| |
| Social Synchronization | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Activity and Birth Control | |
| |
| |
| Primary and Secondary Sex-Related Rhythms in Men | |
| |
| |
| Ultradian and Circadian Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Infradian Cycles | |
| |
| |
| |
| 17th Century Notes of Monthly Rhythms in Males | |
| |
| |
| Body Weight | |
| |
| |
| Grip Strength | |
| |
| |
| Cutaneous Pain | |
| |
| |
| Hormones | |
| |
| |
| |
| More About Infradians in Male Hormones | |
| |
| |
| Emotions | |
| |
| |
| Facial Sebum | |
| |
| |
| Beard Growth and Body Hair | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Activity | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Natural Resources and Agriculture | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Photoperiodism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photoperiodism as a Basic Principle of Biology and Its Applications | |
| |
| |
| Thermoperiodism and Temperature Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Vernalization | |
| |
| |
| Temperature Compensation | |
| |
| |
| Migration | |
| |
| |
| Birds | |
| |
| |
| Butterflies | |
| |
| |
| Pest Management and Agents of Stress | |
| |
| |
| Herbicides | |
| |
| |
| Pest Control | |
| |
| |
| Plant Responses to Injury | |
| |
| |
| Plant Diseases | |
| |
| |
| Production of Produce | |
| |
| |
| Fisheries and Aquaculture | |
| |
| |
| Weather Patterns and Agriculture | |
| |
| |
| Gardens | |
| |
| |
| Outdoor Hobbies | |
| |
| |
| Birding | |
| |
| |
| Fishing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fly-fishing for Trout | |
| |
| |
| Rural and Urban Development | |
| |
| |
| Telemetry Tracking Systems | |
| |
| |
| Muskrats | |
| |
| |
| Squirrels and Foxes | |
| |
| |
| Hare | |
| |
| |
| Ruffed Grouse | |
| |
| |
| The Outdoor Laboratory | |
| |
| |
| Temporal Agroecosystems | |
| |
| |
| Light Pollution | |
| |
| |
| Aquatic Animals | |
| |
| |
| Vertical Migration | |
| |
| |
| Drift | |
| |
| |
| Trout | |
| |
| |
| Turtles | |
| |
| |
| Insects | |
| |
| |
| Birds | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Veterinary Medicine | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Body Temperature and Activity | |
| |
| |
| Diurnal vs. Nocturnal | |
| |
| |
| Timing of Food | |
| |
| |
| Masking | |
| |
| |
| Environment | |
| |
| |
| Cattle | |
| |
| |
| Dogs and Cats | |
| |
| |
| Poultry | |
| |
| |
| Hematology and Urology | |
| |
| |
| Sampling Blood | |
| |
| |
| Multiple Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Peak Times | |
| |
| |
| Collecting Urine | |
| |
| |
| Excretion Rates | |
| |
| |
| Urinary Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Interpreting a Sample | |
| |
| |
| A Primary Circadian Oscillator | |
| |
| |
| The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | |
| |
| |
| The Pineal Gland | |
| |
| |
| Diseases, Pests, and Stress | |
| |
| |
| Parasites | |
| |
| |
| Bacterial Infections | |
| |
| |
| Seasonal Diseases | |
| |
| |
| Flies | |
| |
| |
| Fleas | |
| |
| |
| Reproduction and Photoperiodism | |
| |
| |
| Photoperiod | |
| |
| |
| Melatonin | |
| |
| |
| Domestic Fowl | |
| |
| |
| Sheep | |
| |
| |
| Horses | |
| |
| |
| Pigs and Goats | |
| |
| |
| Artificial Insemination | |
| |
| |
| Semen Quality and Season | |
| |
| |
| Implications | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Society | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Past and Present | |
| |
| |
| The Natural Day vs. 24/7 | |
| |
| |
| Time Schedules | |
| |
| |
| Social Synchronization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Social Synchrony in Animals | |
| |
| |
| Circadian Events | |
| |
| |
| Ultradian and Infradian Events | |
| |
| |
| Aggression and Violence | |
| |
| |
| Night and Shiftwork | |
| |
| |
| Time for Sleep | |
| |
| |
| Problems with Shiftwork | |
| |
| |
| Adjusting to Shiftwork | |
| |
| |
| The Global Workplace | |
| |
| |
| Communication | |
| |
| |
| Work Schedules and Outsourcing | |
| |
| |
| Sports and Performance | |
| |
| |
| Body Temperature and Performance Variables | |
| |
| |
| A Time to Train or Win | |
| |
| |
| Jet Lag and Professional Sports | |
| |
| |
| Allowing for Jet Lag | |
| |
| |
| Travel on the Earth's Surface | |
| |
| |
| Driver Fatigue and Vehicle Accidents | |
| |
| |
| Alcohol, Driving, and Fatigue | |
| |
| |
| The Post-Lunch Dip | |
| |
| |
| Animal Activity and Vehicle Accidents | |
| |
| |
| Travel Above the Earth's Surface | |
| |
| |
| Jet Lag | |
| |
| |
| Life in Space | |
| |
| |
| Travel Beneath the Seas | |
| |
| |
| Mealtimes and Health | |
| |
| |
| |
| Preclinical Meal-Timing Studies | |
| |
| |
| Changes in Body Weight and Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Food: What, How Much, and When | |
| |
| |
| Light Pollution | |
| |
| |
| Effects on Melatonin Production | |
| |
| |
| Effects on Clinical Health | |
| |
| |
| Better Lighting Practices | |
| |
| |
| Pseudoscience: Birthdate-Based Biorhythms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Development of the Biorhythm "Theory" | |
| |
| |
| Lack of Scientific Support | |
| |
| |
| Rigidity vs. Elasticity of Infradian Periods | |
| |
| |
| An Oversimplification of Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clinical Medicine | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Circadian Rhythms in Health | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adjusting Urinary Concentrations for Volume and Time | |
| |
| |
| Overview of Rhythms in Body Systems | |
| |
| |
| What and When is Normal? | |
| |
| |
| Time-Specified Normal Limits | |
| |
| |
| Circadian Rhythms in Symptoms and Disease | |
| |
| |
| Birth and Death | |
| |
| |
| Cardiovascular Disease | |
| |
| |
| Circannual Rhythms in Health | |
| |
| |
| Circannual Rhythms in Symptoms and Disease | |
| |
| |
| Cardiovascular Disease | |
| |
| |
| The Coagulation System | |
| |
| |
| Cholesterol | |
| |
| |
| Respiratory Illness | |
| |
| |
| Mental Disorders | |
| |
| |
| Seasonal Affective Disorder | |
| |
| |
| The Menstrual Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Disorders | |
| |
| |
| Medical Procedures | |
| |
| |
| Male Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Melatonin and Human Health | |
| |
| |
| Darkness and Melatonin | |
| |
| |
| Sexuality | |
| |
| |
| Immune Function | |
| |
| |
| Light, Melatonin and Cancer | |
| |
| |
| Light Leaks at Night | |
| |
| |
| When to Sample? | |
| |
| |
| Diagnosing Normal Levels | |
| |
| |
| Diagnosing Infectious Agents | |
| |
| |
| Diagnosing Abnormal Levels | |
| |
| |
| Using Rhythm Characteristics in Diagnosis | |
| |
| |
| Hours of Changing Resistance | |
| |
| |
| Early Pre-Clinical Findings | |
| |
| |
| Time-Related Responses to Anti-Cancer Drugs | |
| |
| |
| Stage of Rhythm vs. Time of Day | |
| |
| |
| Varying Positive or Negative Effects | |
| |
| |
| Timing Treatment: Chronotherapy | |
| |
| |
| Three Times a Day? | |
| |
| |
| Constant Dosing | |
| |
| |
| Rhythm-Dependent Effects of Some Drugs | |
| |
| |
| Administering Chronotherapy | |
| |
| |
| Examples of Applied Chronotherapy | |
| |
| |
| Asthma | |
| |
| |
| Cancer-Animal Studies | |
| |
| |
| Cancer-Human Trials | |
| |
| |
| Cellular Clocks and Chronotherapy | |
| |
| |
| Time-Indicating Genes | |
| |
| |
| Molecular Machinery Underlies Physiology | |
| |
| |
| Marker Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| The Medical Community and the Concept of Timing | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| |
| Autorhythmometry | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Measuring Your Own Body Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| School Children | |
| |
| |
| Adults | |
| |
| |
| Performance | |
| |
| |
| Ultradian Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Self-help Health Care | |
| |
| |
| Monitoring Symptoms | |
| |
| |
| Body Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Internal Marker Rhythm | |
| |
| |
| Measurement Site | |
| |
| |
| What and When is Normal? | |
| |
| |
| Blood Pressure | |
| |
| |
| Monitoring Hypertension | |
| |
| |
| Ambulatory Monitoring | |
| |
| |
| Morningness-Eveningness | |
| |
| |
| Questionnaires | |
| |
| |
| Morningness vs. Life Factors | |
| |
| |
| Endogenous Disposition | |
| |
| |
| Body Temperature Phase | |
| |
| |
| Cognitive Tasks | |
| |
| |
| When and How Long to Measure? | |
| |
| |
| Self-Measurements During Travel | |
| |
| |
| Self-Measurements During Isolation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Self-Measurements in "Aschoff's Bunker" | |
| |
| |
| Long Self-Measurement Series | |
| |
| |
| What can be Self-Measured? | |
| |
| |
| Equipment | |
| |
| |
| Internal or External Body Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Temperature Devices | |
| |
| |
| Blood Pressure Devices | |
| |
| |
| Automatic Devices | |
| |
| |
| Other Equipment | |
| |
| |
| Saliva, Urine, and Blood | |
| |
| |
| Procedures for Self-Measurements | |
| |
| |
| Keeping Records | |
| |
| |
| Sampling Sequence | |
| |
| |
| Looking at the Data | |
| |
| |
| Making Graphs | |
| |
| |
| Testing for a Time-Effect | |
| |
| |
| Take-Home Message | |
| |
| |
| Appendix | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample sheet for recording oral temperature and other functions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample sheet for recording and graphing temperature, pulse and blood pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detailed instructions for performing self-measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Random Number Adding Speed Test sample pages | |
| |
| |
| |
| Random Number Memory Test sample pages | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chronobiometry: Analyzing for Rhythms | |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| Data Collection | |
| |
| |
| Number of Timepoints | |
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| How Long? | |
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| Sampling Often Enough | |
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| Aliasing | |
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| Decision Making | |
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| Data Preparation | |
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| Graphs and Visual Inspection | |
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| Editing or Transforming Data | |
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| Standard Deviation and Error | |
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| Normalizing Data | |
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| Partitioning Data Spans | |
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| Statistical Detection of Time Effects | |
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| Using Two Timepoints | |
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| Using Three or More Timepoints | |
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| Statistical Detection of Rhythms | |
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| Analyzing Time-Series by Standard Methods | |
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| Limitations of Standard Methods | |
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| Analyzing Time-Series by Curve Fitting | |
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| The Least-Squares Technique | |
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| The Best-Fitting Curve | |
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| Statistical Significance | |
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| Complex Waveforms | |
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| Rhythm Parameter Comparisons | |
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| Lack of Rhythm Detection | |
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| Descriptive Rhythm Parameters | |
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| The Cosinor Illustrated | |
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| Example of a Cosinor Program | |
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| Take-Home Message | |
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| Author Index | |
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| Subject Index | |