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| Overview | |
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| Overview: Conceptualizing and Measuring Motivation and the Role of Evolution in Motivation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Angie's Problem | |
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| The Concept of Motivation | |
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| The Measurement of Motivation | |
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| Characteristics of Motivation | |
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| Activation | |
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| Direction | |
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| The Study of Motivation: Categories of Analysis | |
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| Nomothetic versus Idiographic | |
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| Innate versus Acquired | |
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| Internal versus External | |
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| Mechanistic versus Cognitive | |
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| Levels of Analysis | |
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| Physiological Analysis | |
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| Individual Analysis | |
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| Social Analysis | |
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| Philosophical Analysis | |
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| Analysis of Angie's Problem | |
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| Major Constructs in Motivation | |
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| Energy | |
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| Physiological Mechanisms | |
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| Learning | |
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| Social Inter�ction | |
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| Cognitive Processes | |
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| The Activation of Motivation | |
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| Homeostasis | |
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| Hedonism | |
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| Growth Motivation | |
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| Philosophical and Physiological Roots of Motivational Theory | |
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| Philosophical Antecedents | |
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| Physiological Antecedents | |
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| The Flow of Ideas about Motivation | |
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| Evolution and Motivation | |
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| Life | |
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| Mitosis and Meiosis | |
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| Sex | |
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| The Advantages of Sexual Reproduction | |
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| The Pleasures of Sex | |
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| Interim Summary | |
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| Higher Motives? | |
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| Evolution | |
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| Natural Selection | |
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| Sexual Selection | |
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| Female versus Male Sexual Strategies | |
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| Mate Selection in Humans | |
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| Instincts, Emotion, Thoughts and Behavior | |
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| The Authors' Bias | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resource | |
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| Physiological Mechanisms of Motivation | |
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| Genetic Contributions to Motivated Behavior | |
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| Early Instinct Theories | |
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| William James | |
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| William McDougall | |
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| Criticisms of the Early Instinct Theories | |
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| Classical Ethology | |
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| Ethological Terms | |
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| Intention Movements and Social Releasers | |
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| Motivational Conflict | |
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| Reaction Chains | |
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| Imprinting | |
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| Criticisms of the Classical Ethological Approach | |
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| Some Modifications to the Basic Ideas of Ethology | |
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| Human Ethology | |
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| Additional Innate Behaviors | |
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| Ethological Concepts Concerning Sex and Aggression | |
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| Modem Ethological Approaches | |
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| Behavioral Ecology | |
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| Cognitive Ethology | |
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| Evolutional Psychology | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Physiological Mechanisms of Arousal | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Arousal Theory | |
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| The Reticular Activating System | |
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| Hebb's Theory | |
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| Psychophysiological Measures | |
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| Problems With Arousal Theory | |
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| Sleep | |
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| General Properties of Sleep | |
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| Stages of Sleep | |
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| Dreams | |
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| Sleep Deprivation | |
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| Physiology of Sleep | |
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| Brain Stem Mechanisms That Promote Arousal | |
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| Neurotransmitters That Promote Arousal | |
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| Brainstem Regions That Promote NREM Sleep | |
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| Neurotransmitters That Promote Sleep | |
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| Brainstem Regions That Promote REM Sleep | |
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| Brainstem Neural Flip-Flops | |
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| A Sleep Chemical | |
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| Possible Functions of Sleep | |
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| Stress | |
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| Definition of Stress | |
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| Systemic and Psychological Stress | |
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| Endocrine System Activity and Stress | |
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| The General Adaptation Syndrome | |
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| Diseases of Adaptation | |
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| Life Change, Stress, and Illness | |
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| Criticisms of the Hardiness Concept | |
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| Other Buffers of Stress | |
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| Health Psychology | |
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| Psychoneuroimmunology | |
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| Conditioning of Immune Responses | |
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| Psychosocial Factors and the Immune System | |
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| Placebo Effects | |
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| Sexual Arousal | |
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| Stages of the Human Sexual Response Cycle | |
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| Other Bodily Changes During Sexual Behavior | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Physiological Mechanisms of Regulation | |
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| What Do We Eat: Taste and Smell as Gatekeepers | |
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| Why Do We Eat? | |
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| What Determines How Much We Eat? | |
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| Sensory Specific Satiety | |
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| Basic Metabolism | |
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| Local Theories | |
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| Central Theories | |
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| Homeostatic Regulation | |
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| Regulation of Hunger | |
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| Short-Term Regulation | |
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| The Glucostatic Theory of Hunger | |
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| Peripheral Detectors for Short-Term Regulation | |
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| Long-Term Regulation | |
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| Energy Regulation: Two Processes or One? | |
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| Nonhomeostatic Eating Behavior | |
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| Failure of Regulation | |
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| Anorexia Nervosa | |
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| Cross-Cultural Evidence of Anorexia | |
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| Neurobiology of Anorexia | |
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| The Serotonin Hypothesis | |
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| Heredity Factors | |
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| Brain Structures Involved in Anorexia | |
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| Bulimia Nervosa | |
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| Obesity | |
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| Obesity Explanations | |
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| The Role of Habituation in Obesity | |
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| Obesity as Addiction | |
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| Stress | |
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| Hunger Regulation Reconsidered | |
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| Regulation of Thirst | |
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| Mouth Factors | |
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| Extracellular and Intracellular Mechanisms | |
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| The Kidney | |
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| Osmometric Thirst | |
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| Volumetric Thirst | |
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| Nonhomeostatic Drinking | |
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| Inhibitory Control of Drinking | |
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| Regulation of Sexual Motivation | |
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| Sex Hormones: Organization and Activation | |
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| Sexual Dimorphism | |
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| Hypothalamic Regulation of Sexual Behavior | |
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| Regulation of Aggressive Motivation | |
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| The Limbic System | |
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| Types of Aggression | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| The Behavioral Approaches: Learning, Incentives, and Hedonism | |
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| Learned Motives: Classical, Instrumental, and Observational Learning | |
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| Pavlovian Classical Conditioning | |
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| Experimental Neurosis | |
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| Elimination of Motivated Behaviors Through Conditioning | |
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| Interoceptive Conditioning | |
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| Learned Aversions | |
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| Learned Taste Aversions in Cancer Patients | |
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| Instrumental Conditioning | |
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| Quantity, Quality, and Contrasts of Reinforcement | |
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| Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement | |
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| Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers | |
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| Tokens and Token Economies | |
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| Classical-Operant Interactions in Motivation | |
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| Acquired Fear | |
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| Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs) | |
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| Learned Helplessness | |
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| Symptoms of Helplessness | |
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| Causes and Prevention of Helplessness | |
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| Observational Learning (Modeling) | |
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| Modeling Processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction | |
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| Modeling Processes: Vicarious Reinforcement | |
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| Learning and Aggression | |
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| Classical Conditioning and Aggression | |
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| Instrumental Conditioning and Aggression | |
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| Modeled Aggression | |
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| Sexual Motivation and Learning | |
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| Learned Sexual Values | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resource | |
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| Incentive Motivation | |
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| Incentives as Energizers | |
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| Incentive Motivation (K) | |
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| The Persistence of Behavior | |
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| Incentives as Generators of Emotion | |
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| Mowrer: Fear, Hope, Relief, and Disappointment | |
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| Incentives as Carriers of Information | |
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| Tolman: Cognitive Formulations | |
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| Predictability | |
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| The Overmier and Lowry Model | |
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| Klinger: Meaningfulness | |
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| Incentive Aspects of Sexual Motivation | |
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| Pheromones | |
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| Learned Sexual Stimuli | |
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| Female Attractiveness | |
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| Male Attractiveness | |
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| Incentive Motivation and Physical Addictions | |
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| Behavioral Addictions | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Hedonism and Sensory Stimulation | |
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| Hedonism | |
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| P. T. Young: Sign, Intensity, and Duration | |
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| Sensory Stimulation and the Hedonic Continuum | |
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| The Motivational Influence of Sensations | |
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| Hedonic Value and Contact Receptors | |
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| Pain | |
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| Novelty, Curiosity, and Exploratory Behavior | |
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| Behaviors Released by Stimulation | |
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| The Need for Stimulation | |
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| Attachment | |
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| Sensation Seeking | |
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| Opponent-Process Theory: Hedonism Revisited | |
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| Drug Addiction: An Alternative to the Incentive-Sensitization View | |
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| Thrill Seeking | |
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| Social Attachment | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Cognitive Approaches to Motivation | |
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| Cognitive Motivation: Expectancy-Value Approaches | |
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| Tolman's Purposive Behavior | |
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| Characteristics of Molar Behavior | |
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| Purpose and Cognition | |
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| Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory | |
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| The Person | |
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| Motivational Properties of the Inner-Personal Region (Tension) | |
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| The Psychological Environment | |
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| Expectancy-Value Theory | |
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| Social Learning Theory | |
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| Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement | |
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| Revisions to Need-Achievement Theory | |
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| Attitudes, Behaviors, and Expectancy-Value | |
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| The Theory of Planned Behavior | |
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| Comparing and Contrasting Three Expectancy-Value Theories | |
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| Social Loafing | |
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| Expectancy- Value Theory and Social Loafing | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Cognitive Consistency and Social Motivation | |
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| Cognitive Consistency Theory | |
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| Balance Theory | |
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| Problems With Balance Theory | |
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| Cognitive Dissonance | |
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| Research on Dissonance | |
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| When Prophecy Fails | |
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| Challenges to Dissonance Theory | |
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| Self-Perception Theory | |
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| Dissonance or Self-Perception? | |
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| A Problem for Consistency Theories | |
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| Social Motivation | |
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| Social Facilitation and Inhibition: Coaction and Audience Effects | |
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| Social Influence | |
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| Conformity | |
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| Factors That Affect Conformity Motivation | |
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| Criticisms of Conformity Research | |
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| Why Do People Conform? | |
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| Compliance | |
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| Obedience | |
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| Why a Motive to Obey? | |
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| Bystander Intervention | |
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| A Model of Intervention | |
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| Factors That Affect Helping Behavior | |
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| What Motivates Helping? | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Cognitive Motivation: Attribution Approaches | |
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| Attribution Theory | |
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| Heider's Naive Psychology | |
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| The Jones and Davis Correspondent Inference Theory | |
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| Kelley's Covariation Theory | |
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| Weiner's Attributional Analysis of Achievement Behavior | |
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| Biases in Attribution | |
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| Application of Research on Attributions | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Cognitive Motivation: Competence and Control | |
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| Carl Rogers and Positive Regard | |
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| The Fully Functioning Individual | |
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| Criticisms of Rogers's Approach | |
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| Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization | |
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| Hierarchy of Needs | |
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| A Revised Hierarchy of Needs | |
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| Competence | |
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| Personal Causation | |
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| Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory of Human Agency | |
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| Self Determination Theory | |
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| The Rise of Positive Psychology | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Emotion and Motivation | |
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| The Emotions as Motivators | |
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| Emotion From a Biological Perspective | |
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| Darwin's Principles of Emotion | |
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| Serviceable Associated Habits | |
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| Antithesis | |
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| Direct Action of the Nervous System | |
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| Recognition of Emotional States | |
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| Other Formulations of Emotion After Darwin | |
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| The James-Lange Theory | |
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| The Cognitive-Physiological Theory of Emotion | |
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| Ethology | |
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| Brain Mechanisms of Emotion | |
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| The Amygdala, Orbital Frontal Cortex, and Cingulate Cortex | |
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| Emotion from a Learning Perspective | |
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| Classical Conditioning and Emotion | |
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| Operant/Instrumental Conditioning and Emotion | |
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| Emotional Modeling | |
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| The Preparedness of Emotional Learning | |
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| Emotion from a Cognitive Perspective | |
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| Attribution of Emotion | |
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| Emotion as Primary and Universal | |
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| The Tomkins Model | |
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| Izard's Differential Emotions Theory | |
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| The Circumplex Model of Affect | |
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| Facial Expression and Emotion | |
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| Summary | |
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| Key Terms | |
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| Suggestions for Further Reading | |
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| Web Resources | |
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| Endview | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Name Index | |
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| Subject Index | |