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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Abbreviations | |
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| General Bibliography | |
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| Introduction: Perspectives on Parallels | |
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| Political History | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Near East Before Alexander | |
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| Persian Empire | |
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| Greece | |
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| Alexander the Great | |
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| Macedonia | |
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| Life of Alexander III (356-323) | |
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| Alexander's Influence | |
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| The Hellenistic Kingdoms | |
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| The Diadochi | |
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| Ptolemies--Egypt | |
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| Seleucids--Syria | |
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| Rome | |
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| The Roman Genius | |
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| Rome and the West | |
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| Rome and the East | |
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| The Later Republic: Civil Wars | |
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| Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14) | |
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| The Early Empire | |
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| The Later Empire | |
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| Administration of the Empire | |
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| Cities | |
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| Provinces | |
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| Client Kingdoms | |
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| Political Connections of the New Testament | |
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| Society and Culture | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Roman Military | |
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| The Legions | |
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| Emblems, Weapons, and Dress | |
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| Auxiliaries | |
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| Praetorian Guard | |
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| Other Units | |
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| Social Classes | |
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| The Senatorial Order | |
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| The Equestrian Order | |
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| Municipal Aristocracies | |
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| Plebeians and Other Free Persons | |
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| Freedmen | |
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| Slavery | |
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| Roman Citizenship | |
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| Roman Law | |
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| Social Relationships | |
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| Patron-Client Relationship | |
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| Friendship | |
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| Social Networks | |
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| Honor and Shame | |
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| Social Morality | |
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| Marriage and Family | |
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| Place of Women | |
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| Children | |
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| Economic Life | |
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| Trade and Travel | |
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| Coinage | |
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| Taxation | |
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| Clothing and Appearance | |
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| Entertainment | |
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| Theatres | |
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| Athletics | |
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| Arenas | |
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| Circuses | |
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| Gymnasia and Baths | |
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| Banquets | |
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| Music | |
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| Education | |
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| Literature and Language | |
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| Authors | |
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| Rhetoric | |
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| Literary Forms and Genres | |
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| Making of Books | |
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| Reading and Studying of Books | |
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| Inscriptions and Papyri | |
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| Language | |
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| Art and Architecture | |
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| Clubs and Associations | |
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| Greek Clubs | |
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| Roman Colleges | |
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| Egyptian Associations | |
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| The Statutes of an Association | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Hellenistic-Roman Religions | |
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| Ancient Greek Religion | |
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| The Epic Age: Homer | |
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| Hesiod | |
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| The Archaic Period | |
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| Signs of Dissolution in the Classical Age | |
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| Ancient Roman Religion | |
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| Deities | |
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| Religious Personnel | |
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| Religious Observances | |
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| Soul and the Dead | |
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| Characteristics of Roman Religion | |
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| Religion in Hellenistic-Roman Times: General Characteristics | |
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| Domestic and Rural Religion | |
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| Greek | |
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| Roman | |
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| Civic Cults | |
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| Priesthood | |
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| Ritual Prescriptions | |
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| Sacrifice | |
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| Votive Offerings | |
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| Prayers and Hymns | |
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| Festivals | |
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| Other Features | |
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| A Sample of a Civic Cult: Ephesus and Artemis | |
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| Ruler Cult | |
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| Antecedents and Presuppositions | |
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| Historical Developments | |
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| Forms of the Imperial Cult | |
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| Personal Religion | |
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| Oracles | |
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| Dreams and Divination | |
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| Healing Cults | |
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| Magic and Maledictions | |
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| Imprecations and Oaths | |
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| Demons and Superstition | |
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| Astrology, Astral Religion, and Fate | |
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| Death and the Afterlife | |
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| Greek Mysteries and Eastern Religions | |
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| Local Mysteries | |
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| Eleusinian Mysteries | |
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| Dionysiac Mysteries | |
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| Egyptian Deities: Isis, Osiris, and Sarapis | |
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| Phoenician Deities: Astarte and Adonis | |
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| Syrian Deities: Atargatis and Others | |
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| Phrygian Deities: Cybele and Attis | |
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| A Persian Deity: Mithras | |
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| Mystery Religions and Christianity | |
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| Gnosticism, Hermetic Literature, Chaldaean Oracles | |
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| The Term Gnosticism | |
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| Sources for Study | |
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| Origins of Gnosticism | |
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| Characteristic Features | |
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| Gnosticism in the New Testament | |
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| The Hermetica | |
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| Chaldaean Oracles | |
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| Later Developments: Monotheism and Sun Worship | |
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| Hellenistic-Roman Philosophies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Philosophy as Religion | |
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| Philosophy as Ethics | |
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| Popular Philosophy | |
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| Philosophy and Individualism | |
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| Philosophy in Its Social Setting | |
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| Sophists and Socrates | |
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| The Sophists | |
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| Socrates (469-399 B.C.) | |
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| Plato and the Academy to the First Century | |
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| Life of Plato (429-347 B.C.) | |
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| The Dialogues | |
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| Plato's Thought | |
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| Plato's Influence | |
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| The Old Academy | |
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| The Skeptical Academy | |
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| The Eclectic Academy | |
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| Aristotle and the Peripatetics | |
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| Life of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) | |
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| Aristotle's Thought | |
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| Aristotle's Influence | |
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| Theophrastus (370-285 B.C.) | |
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| Strato | |
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| Later History and General Character | |
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| Aspects of the Peripatetic Legacy | |
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| Skepticism | |
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| Pyrrho (C. 360-C. 270 B.C.) | |
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| Aenesidemus | |
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| Sextus Empiricus (C. A.D. 200) | |
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| Influence of Skepticism | |
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| Cynicism | |
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| Beginnings of Cynicism | |
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| Cynic Characteristics | |
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| Dio of Prusa (A.D. 40 to after 112) | |
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| Lucian of Samosata (C. A.D. 120 to after 180) | |
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| Stoicism | |
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| Early Stoa | |
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| Stoic Physics | |
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| Stoic Logic and Epistemology | |
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| Stoic Ethics | |
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| Middle Stoa | |
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| Later Stoa: Roman Stoicism | |
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| Stoicism and Christianity | |
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| Epicureanism | |
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| Epicurus and His School | |
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| Lucretius (94-55 B.C.) | |
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| Epicurean Physics | |
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| Epicurean Epistemology | |
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| Epicurean Ethics | |
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| Estimate and Comparisons | |
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| Eclecticism | |
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| Characteristics | |
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| Cicero (106-43 B.C.) | |
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| Neopythagoreanism | |
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| Pythagoras | |
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| The Pythagorean Revival | |
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| Apollonius of Tyana and Philostratus | |
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| Numenius | |
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| Middle Platonism | |
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| Characteristics | |
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| Plutarch (C. A.D. 50-after 120) | |
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| Plotinus and Neoplatonism | |
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| Life of Plotinus (A.D. 205-270) | |
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| Plotinus's System | |
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| Later Neoplatonists | |
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| Judaism | |
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| Jewish History, 538 B.C. To A.D. 200 | |
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| The Persian Period (538-332 B.C.) | |
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| The Greek Period (332-167 B.C.) | |
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| The Maccabean or Hasmonean Period (167-63 B.C.) | |
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| The Roman Period (from 63 B.C.) | |
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| Jews in the Early Roman Empire | |
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| Jewish Literature and Other Sources in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods | |
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| The Old Testament in Greek | |
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| Jewish Literature in Greek: Fragments | |
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| Apocrypha | |
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| Pseudepigrapha | |
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| Dead Sea Scrolls | |
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| Apocalyptic Writings | |
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| Philo | |
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| Josephus | |
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| Rabbinic Literature | |
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| Jewish Mysticism | |
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| Archaeological Sources | |
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| Pagan References to Jews | |
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| Parties and Sects | |
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| Pharisees | |
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| Sadducees | |
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| Qumran Community, Essenes, and Therapeutae | |
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| Zealots | |
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| Herodians | |
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| Samaritans | |
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| Beliefs and Practices | |
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| One God | |
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| Israel, the Chosen People | |
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| Torah, Tradition, and Scripture | |
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| Proselytes and Godfearers | |
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| Messianism and the Glorious Destiny | |
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| Afterlife | |
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| Festivals and Holy Days | |
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| Daily Devotions | |
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| Organization and Institutions | |
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| Temple and Priesthood | |
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| Sanhedrin | |
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| Community Organization | |
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| Rabbis | |
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| Synagogue | |
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| Christianity in the Ancient World | |
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| Literary References to Christianity in Non-Christian Sources | |
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| Latin Authors | |
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| Greek Authors | |
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| Jewish Sources in Greek | |
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| Jewish Sources in Hebrew and Aramaic | |
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| Archaeological Remains Bearing on Early Christian History | |
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| Inscriptions | |
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| Papyri | |
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| Coins | |
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| Some Claimed Archaeological Remains of Early Christianity | |
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| Rotas-Sator Word Square | |
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| The "Cross" at Herculaneum | |
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| Ossuaries | |
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| The Tomb of Peter | |
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| Attitudes of Pagans toward Christians | |
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| The Legal Status of Christianity | |
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| Hindrances to the Acceptance of Christianity | |
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| Religious Rivals | |
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| Judaism | |
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| Pagan Religion and Philosophy | |
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| Gnosticism and Other Rival Versions of Christianity | |
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| Jewish Christianity | |
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| Factors Favorable to Christianity | |
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| External Circumstances | |
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| Hellenistic Judaism | |
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| Religious Quest | |
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| What Was Unique in Christianity? | |
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| Index of Subjects | |
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| Index of Scripture References | |
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| Map of the Ancient World | |