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Membranes, Particles, and Potentials | |
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Complex System Approach | |
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The Biological Membrane | |
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Movement in a Solution | |
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Concentration of Water: Osmosis | |
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Movement of Ions: The Nernst Equation | |
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Action Potential | |
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Creation of Membrane Potential | |
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Basic Features of Action Potential | |
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Mechanism of Generation of Action Potential | |
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Information Conduction and Transmission | |
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Conduction of Action Potential | |
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Myelinated Fibers | |
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The Structure of Neuron | |
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Information Coding in the Nervous System | |
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Synaptic Transmission | |
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Neurotransmitters | |
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Temporal and Spatial Summation | |
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Skeletal Muscle | |
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Skeletal muscle: Structure | |
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Myofilaments | |
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Neuromuscular Synapse | |
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Mechanism of Contraction | |
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Types of Muscle Contraction | |
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Elements of Mechanics | |
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Force-Length and Force-Velocity Relations | |
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External Regimes of Muscle Contraction | |
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Receptors | |
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General Classification and Properties of Receptors | |
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Muscle Spindles | |
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The Gamma System | |
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Golgi Tendon Organs | |
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Other Muscle Receptors | |
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Articular Receptors | |
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Cutaneous Receptors | |
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Where Does the Information Go? | |
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Motor Units and Electromyography | |
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The Notion of Motor Unit | |
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Fast and Slow Motor Units | |
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The Henneman Principle (the Size Principle) | |
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Functional Role of Motor Units | |
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Electromyography | |
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Filtering, Rectification, and Integration | |
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Problems | |
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Connections | |
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Excitation and Inhibition Within the Spinal Cord | |
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The Spinal Cord | |
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Excitation Within the Central Nervous System | |
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Postsynaptic Inhibition | |
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Renshaw Cells | |
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Ia-Interneurons | |
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Presynaptic Inhibition | |
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Persistent Inward Current | |
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Monosynaptic Reflexes | |
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Reflexes | |
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Reflex Arc | |
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H- and T-Reflexes and M-Response | |
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Effects of Voluntary Muscle Activation on Monosynaptic Reflexes | |
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F-Wave | |
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Oligosynaptic and Polysynaptic Reflexes | |
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Oligosynaptic Reflexes | |
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Polysynaptic Reflexes | |
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Flexor Reflex | |
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Tonic Stretch Reflex | |
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Tonic Vibration Reflex | |
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Interaction Among Reflex Pathways | |
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Interjoint and Interlimb Reflexes | |
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Voluntary Control of a Single Muscle | |
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Feedforward and Feedback Control | |
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Servo Control | |
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The Servo-Hypothesis | |
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Alpha-Gamma Coactivation | |
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Voluntary Activation of Muscles | |
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Equilibrium-Point Control | |
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Patterns of Single-Joint Movements | |
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Isotonic Movements and Isometric Contractions | |
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Performance and Task Parameters | |
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EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isotonic Movements | |
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EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isometric Contractions | |
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The Dual-Strategy Hypothesis | |
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Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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Preprogrammed Reaction Is not a Stretch Reflex | |
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In Search of the Afferent Source of Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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Preprogrammed Reactions During Movement Perturbations | |
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Basic Features of Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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Preprogrammed Corrections of Vertical Posture | |
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Corrective Stumbling Reaction | |
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Problems | |
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Structures | |
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Elements of the Brain Anatomy | |
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Single-Neuron Recording | |
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Electroencephalography | |
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Evoked Potentials | |
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Radiography | |
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Computerized Tomography | |
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Positron Emission Tomography | |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging | |
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging | |
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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation | |
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Neuroanatomical Tracing | |
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Major Brain Structures | |
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Cerebral Cortex | |
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Cerebral Hemispheres | |
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Structure of the Cerebral Cortex | |
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Primary Motor and Premotor Areas | |
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Inputs to Motor Cortex | |
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Outputs of Motor Cortex | |
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Preparation for a Voluntary Movement | |
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Neuronal Population Vectors | |
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What Variables May Be Encoded in the Cortical Neuronal Activity? | |
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The Cerebellum | |
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Anatomy of the Cerebellum | |
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Cerebellar Inputs | |
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Cerebellar Outputs | |
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Relation of Cerebellar Activity to Voluntary Movement | |
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Neuronal Population Vectors | |
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The Effects of Cerebellar Lesions | |
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The Basal Ganglia | |
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Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia | |
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Inputs and Outputs of the Basal Ganglia | |
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Motor Circuits Involving the Basal Ganglia | |
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Activity of Basal Ganglia During Movements | |
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Effects of Lesions of the Basal Ganglia | |
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Ascending and Descending Pathways | |
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Basic Properties of Neural Pathways | |
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Afferent Input to the Spinal Cord | |
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Dorsal Column Pathway | |
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Spinocervical Pathway | |
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Spinothalamic Tract | |
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Spinocerebellar Tracts | |
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Spinoreticular Tract | |
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Pyramidal Tract | |
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Rubrospinal Tract | |
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Vestibulospinal Tracts | |
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Reticulospinal Tracts and Other Descending Tracts | |
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Propriospinal Tracts | |
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Cranial Nerves | |
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Memory | |
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Descartes' Dualism and Cellular Mechanisms of Memory | |
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Muscle Memory | |
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Types of Memory and Learning | |
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Habituation of Reflexes: An Example of Nonassociative Learning | |
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Conditioned Reflexes: An Example of Associative Learning | |
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Motor Learning | |
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Short-Term and Long-Term Memory | |
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Neuronal and Synaptic Mechanisms of Memory | |
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Retrieval of Memory | |
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Genetic Code as an Example of Memory | |
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Plasticity in the Brain | |
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Korsakoff Syndrome | |
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Possible Role of Hippocampus and Cerebellum in Memory | |
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Spinal Memory | |
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Problems | |
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Behaviors: Control and Coordination | |
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General Issues of Motor Control | |
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Design of the Human Body: A Source of Problems | |
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Force Control | |
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Engrams and the Generalized Motor Program | |
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Internal Models | |
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The Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: The Main Ideas | |
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The Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: More Subtle Points | |
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Dynamic Systems Approach | |
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Motor Synergies | |
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Motor Redundancy Problem | |
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Optimization Approaches | |
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Principle of Abundance | |
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Structural Units and Synergies | |
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Studies of Motor Synergies: Principal Component Analysis | |
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Uncontrolled Manifold Hypothesis | |
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Postural Control | |
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Vertical Posture | |
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Postural Sway | |
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Vestibular System | |
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The Role of Vision in Postural Control | |
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The Role of Proprioception in Postural Control | |
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Anticipatory Postural Adjustments | |
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Corrective Postural Reactions | |
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Postural Synergies | |
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Locomotion | |
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Two Approaches to Locomotion | |
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Central Pattern Generator | |
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Locomotor Centers | |
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Spinal Locomotion | |
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Spinal Control of Locomotion in Humans | |
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Gait Patterns | |
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Dynamic Pattern Generation | |
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Step Initiation | |
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Corrective Stumbling Reaction | |
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Multijoint Movement | |
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General Features of Targeted Reaching Movements | |
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Major Problems of Controlling Natural Reaching Movements | |
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Interjoint Reflexes | |
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Spinal Mechanisms of Multijoint Coordination | |
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Supraspinal Mechanisms | |
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The Equilibrium-Trajectory Hypothesis | |
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What Is Controlled During Multijoint Movements? | |
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Prehension | |
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Hand Joints and Muscles | |
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Cortical Representations of the Hand | |
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Indices of Finger Interaction | |
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Multifinger Synergies in Pressing Tasks | |
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Grasping | |
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Prehension Synergies and the Principle of Superposition | |
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Eye Movement and Vision | |
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The Eye | |
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Photoreceptors | |
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Retina and Optic Nerve | |
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Oculomotor Control | |
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Central Mechanisms of Visual Perception | |
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The Role of Visual Information in Voluntary Movements | |
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Kinesthesia | |
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Which Physical Variables Are Sensed by Proprioceptors? | |
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Peripheral Sources of Kinesthetic Information | |
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The Role of the Motor Command in Kinesthesia | |
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Where Does the Information Go? | |
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Kinesthetic Illusions | |
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Pain | |
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Problems | |
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Evolving | |
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Fatigue | |
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Fatigue and Its Contributors | |
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Muscular Mechanisms of Fatigue | |
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Spinal Mechanisms of Fatigue | |
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Supraspinal Mechanisms of Fatigue | |
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Adaptive Changes During Fatigue | |
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Abnormal Fatigue | |
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Effects of Aging | |
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General Features of Movements in Elderly | |
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Changes in Muscles and Motor units With Age | |
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Muscle Reflexes in Elderly | |
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Changes in the Sensory Function | |
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Muscle Activation Patterns During Fast Movements | |
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Changes in Posture and Gait with Age | |
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Hand Function in Elderly | |
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Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns | |
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Effects of Training | |
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Typical and Atypical Development | |
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Humans at Birth | |
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Motor Milestones During Typical Development | |
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Exploration and Emergent Motor Patterns | |
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Down Syndrome | |
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Effects of Practice in Down Syndrome | |
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Autism | |
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Development Coordination Disorder | |
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Motor Disorders | |
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Peripheral Muscular and Neurological Disorders | |
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Myopathies and Neuropathies | |
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Muscular Dystrophies | |
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Continuous Muscle Fiber Activity Syndromes | |
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Myasthenia Gravis | |
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Peripheral Neuropathies | |
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Motor Disorders Associated With Diabetes | |
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Radiculopathies | |
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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis | |
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Spinal Cord Injury and Spasticity | |
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Consequence of Spinal Cord Injury | |
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Signs and Symptoms of Spasticity | |
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Possible Mechanisms of Spasticity | |
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Treatment of Spasticity | |
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Multiple Sclerosis | |
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Disorders Involving the Basal Ganglia | |
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Clinical Features of Parkinson's Disease | |
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Voluntary Movements in Parkinson's Disease | |
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Changes in Postural Control and Locomotion | |
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Treatment of Parkinson's Disease | |
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Huntington's Chorea | |
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Hemiballismus | |
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Dystonia | |
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Tardive Diskinesia | |
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Cerebellar Disorders | |
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Consequences of Cerebellar Injuries in Animals | |
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Causes of Cerebellar Disorders | |
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Abnormalities of Stance and Gait | |
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Voluntary Movements in Cerebellar Disorders | |
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Cerebellar Tremor | |
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Ataxias | |
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Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome | |
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Cortical Disorders | |
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Consequences of Lesions of Cortical Lobes | |
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Stroke | |
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Myoclonus | |
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Essential Tremor | |
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Tics | |
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Tourette's Syndrome | |
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Cerebral Palsy | |
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Williams Syndrome | |
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Wilson's Disease | |
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Implications for Motor Rehabilitation | |
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Do "Normal Movements" Exist? | |
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Back to the Problem of Structural Units and Synergies | |
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Changes in CNS Priorities | |
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The Role of CNS Plasticity | |
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Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns of Atypical Individuals | |
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Amputation | |
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Practical Considerations | |
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Problems | |
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Laboratories | |
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Glossary | |
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References | |
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Subject index | |