| List of Figures | p. xiii |
| List of Activities | p. xvii |
| List of Photographs | p. xix |
| Preface | p. xxi |
| Considering the World of Science | p. 1 |
| Perspectives on the Nature of Science | p. 3 |
| What Is Science? | p. 4 |
| What Distinguishes the Scientist? | p. 4 |
| An Operational Definition of Science | p. 7 |
| Science as Problem Solving | p. 9 |
| The Processes of Science | p. 10 |
| Quick Review | p. 11 |
| Science and Culture | p. 11 |
| The Impact of Language and Metaphor | p. 12 |
| Hypotheses, Models, Theories, and Laws | p. 13 |
| Science and Technology | p. 14 |
| Quick Review | p. 15 |
| Science and Philosophy | p. 15 |
| Positivism | p. 16 |
| Constructivism | p. 17 |
| Comparing Positivism with Constructivism | p. 17 |
| Constructivism and the Teaching of Science | p. 19 |
| Quick Review | p. 20 |
| Conclusion | p. 20 |
| Scientific Knowledge for the Elementary/Middle School Years | p. 23 |
| Scope of Elementary/Middle School Science | p. 24 |
| Less Is More | p. 25 |
| Frameworks for Science Content | p. 25 |
| Quick Review | p. 27 |
| National Education Standards | p. 27 |
| Physical Science | p. 27 |
| Life Science Content | p. 29 |
| Earth and Space Science Content | p. 31 |
| The Additional Content Areas | p. 33 |
| Quick Review | p. 35 |
| Obstacles to Implementing a Depth-Oriented Science Program | p. 36 |
| Conclusion | p. 38 |
| Science Education: The New "Basic" in the Classroom | p. 39 |
| Science in the School Curriculum | p. 40 |
| A Brief Overview of How Science Became a Part of Education | p. 41 |
| The Contemporary Condition of Science in the Public Schools | p. 43 |
| Trying to Explain What Has Been Found | p. 45 |
| Quick Review | p. 46 |
| Why Science Is Important in Elementary and Middle School | p. 46 |
| Science Is Utilitarian | p. 47 |
| Science Is Humanistic | p. 50 |
| Quick Review | p. 51 |
| Teaching for Feeling and Valuing | p. 51 |
| The Affective Domain in Science Education | p. 51 |
| Tapping the Learning Potential of the Child | p. 54 |
| Values Formation | p. 55 |
| Motivating Children to Learn Science | p. 56 |
| Quick Review | p. 62 |
| Implications for the Aspiring Teacher | p. 62 |
| Metaphors of Instruction | p. 62 |
| What You Need to Know | p. 63 |
| Quick Review | p. 64 |
| Conclusion | p. 65 |
| Psychological Foundations for Teaching Science | p. 67 |
| Children's Cognitive Development and the Learning of Science | p. 69 |
| Children's Science and Constructivism | p. 70 |
| Intended and Actual Outcomes of Instruction | p. 71 |
| Children's Science versus Scientists' Science | p. 73 |
| Constructivism in Practice | p. 75 |
| Children's Misconceptions | p. 77 |
| Quick Review | p. 79 |
| Facilitating Conceptual Development | p. 80 |
| The Conceptual Development Model | p. 80 |
| Instructional Implications of the Conceptual Development Model | p. 86 |
| Quick Review | p. 88 |
| Conclusion | p. 89 |
| Eliciting Children's Conceptions about Science | p. 91 |
| The Purpose of Interviews | p. 92 |
| The Dynamics of Interviews | p. 93 |
| The Nature of Interviews | p. 93 |
| Challenges on Many Levels | p. 94 |
| Component Questions for Designing Interviews | p. 97 |
| Seeking Generalizations and Operational Definitions | p. 98 |
| Quick Review | p. 101 |
| Conducting Interviews | p. 101 |
| Analyzing Interview Responses | p. 103 |
| Individual and Group Patterns of Understanding | p. 103 |
| Categorizing Responses Relative to Conceptual Development | p. 107 |
| Identifying Instructional Implications | p. 109 |
| Quick Review | p. 112 |
| Finding Time for Interviewing | p. 112 |
| Resource Personnel | p. 112 |
| Sampling the Class | p. 113 |
| Modifying Class Discussion | p. 113 |
| Quick Review | p. 114 |
| Conclusion | p. 115 |
| Methods of Science Teaching for the Elementary and Middle School Grades | p. 117 |
| Developing the Skills of the Natural Investigator | p. 119 |
| Children's Questions | p. 120 |
| Inquiry | p. 124 |
| The Inquiry Approach | p. 124 |
| Inquiry Development | p. 127 |
| Quick Review | p. 132 |
| Science Process Skills | p. 132 |
| Basic Science Process Skills | p. 133 |
| Integrated Science Process Skills | p. 142 |
| Quick Review | p. 142 |
| Conclusion | p. 142 |
| Investigations in Science | p. 144 |
| There is More Than One Way to Investigate | p. 145 |
| Types of Investigations | p. 145 |
| Trial and Error | p. 146 |
| Documenting | p. 147 |
| Prediction Testing | p. 149 |
| Product Testing | p. 152 |
| Experimenting | p. 154 |
| Reflecting | p. 160 |
| Generating Models | p. 161 |
| Inventing | p. 164 |
| Conclusion | p. 174 |
| Designing Science Lessons | p. 176 |
| The Three Components of Science Education | p. 177 |
| Content, Attitude, and Process | p. 177 |
| Survival Values | p. 178 |
| Discovery Learning | p. 179 |
| The Learning Cycle | p. 181 |
| Teaching for Conceptual Change | p. 183 |
| Interactive Strategies That Facilitate the Discovery Approach | p. 186 |
| Quick Review | p. 190 |
| Conclusion | p. 190 |
| Making Real-World Connections | p. 192 |
| Relevancy and the Teaching of Science | p. 193 |
| Approaches for Relevant Connections | p. 194 |
| Real-World Demonstrations | p. 195 |
| Relevant Documentation | p. 198 |
| Individual Investigations | p. 200 |
| Quick Review | p. 201 |
| Nontraditional Educational Opportunities | p. 201 |
| At Play | p. 202 |
| Science Excursions | p. 205 |
| Facing Environmental Issues | p. 206 |
| Quick Review | p. 209 |
| Conclusion | p. 209 |
| Aligning Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment | p. 211 |
| Science, Technology, and Society: Connections | p. 213 |
| What Is STS? | p. 214 |
| Science and Technology as a Social Issue | p. 216 |
| Social Change: The Big Picture | p. 217 |
| Carrying Capacity: The Crunch Is Here | p. 217 |
| Considerations for the Future | p. 221 |
| Quick Review | p. 225 |
| STS in the Classroom | p. 225 |
| Infusing STS Education into the Curriculum | p. 225 |
| Using Simulations/Role-Playing/Projects | p. 226 |
| Helping Children Analyze and Discuss Issues | p. 231 |
| Enabling Children to Consider Consequences | p. 231 |
| Quick Review | p. 233 |
| Conclusion | p. 234 |
| Developing the Elementary/Middle School Science Program | p. 235 |
| Goals for Teaching Science | p. 236 |
| Scientific Literacy | p. 238 |
| Science Appreciation | p. 238 |
| Citizen Formation | p. 239 |
| Quick Review | p. 241 |
| Reform Efforts of the 1950s-1970s: The Alphabet Programs | p. 241 |
| Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Science (COPES) | p. 243 |
| Elementary Science Study (ESS) | p. 243 |
| Science--A Process Approach (SAPA/SAPA II) | p. 243 |
| Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS/SCISII/SCIIS) | p. 244 |
| Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) | p. 244 |
| Quick Review | p. 244 |
| Reform Efforts of the 1980s-1990s | p. 245 |
| Science and Technology for Children (STC) | p. 245 |
| Full Option Science System (FOSS) | p. 246 |
| Science Alive | p. 246 |
| Science for Life and Living and Middle School Science and Technology | p. 246 |
| Insights | p. 247 |
| Quick Review | p. 247 |
| Developing the Program at Your School | p. 249 |
| Determine the Condition of the Science Program | p. 249 |
| Being Prepared | p. 251 |
| Make Room for Event-Based Science | p. 251 |
| Integrating Science across the Curriculum | p. 255 |
| Quick Review | p. 256 |
| Conclusion | p. 256 |
| Planning and Managing Science in the Classroom | p. 258 |
| Multiple Contexts Require Multiple Approaches | p. 259 |
| Creating Spaces That Foster Interaction | p. 260 |
| Establishing Learning Centers | p. 261 |
| Managing Learning Centers | p. 262 |
| Quick Review | p. 264 |
| Alternative Patterns for Teaching Science | p. 265 |
| Prime Time for Science | p. 265 |
| The Value of Planning for Subject Integration | p. 267 |
| Quick Review | p. 267 |
| The Science Culture of the Classroom | p. 267 |
| Planning in Support of Inquiry | p. 269 |
| Using the Outdoors and Community Resources | p. 269 |
| Planning for a Safe Environment | p. 275 |
| Quick Review | p. 277 |
| Conclusion | p. 277 |
| Assessment of Student Learning | p. 278 |
| The Nature of Assessment | p. 279 |
| Traditional Assessment versus Performance-Based Assessment | p. 280 |
| Indirect Assessment versus Direct Assessment | p. 281 |
| Alternative Forms of Assessment | p. 282 |
| Interviews | p. 282 |
| Checklists | p. 282 |
| Open-ended Questioning | p. 283 |
| Science Journals | p. 284 |
| Inquiry Reports | p. 285 |
| Investigation Reports | p. 287 |
| Inventions and Models | p. 288 |
| Performance Tests | p. 288 |
| Quick Review | p. 289 |
| Authentic Assessment Using Portfolios | p. 289 |
| The Nature of Portfolios | p. 289 |
| The Purpose of Portfolios | p. 290 |
| The Value of Portfolios | p. 290 |
| Components for Science Portfolios | p. 291 |
| Portfolio as Evidence of Cognitive Gain | p. 292 |
| Quick Review | p. 293 |
| Scoring Rubrics | p. 293 |
| Conclusion | p. 294 |
| Resources | p. 297 |
| A Compendium of Resources for Teaching Science | p. 299 |
| Goals and Objectives for Science and Environmental Education: A Sampler | p. 300 |
| Major Science Curriculum Reform Projects | p. 301 |
| Guidelines for the National Science Education Standards | p. 301 |
| Areas Addressed by the National Science Education Standards | p. 301 |
| The Eight Categories of the Content Standards | p. 302 |
| Content Standards by Category | p. 302 |
| Science Topics Common to K-8 Science | p. 303 |
| Earth Space Science | p. 303 |
| Living Things | p. 304 |
| Matter and Energy | p. 305 |
| Safety in the Classroom | p. 306 |
| First Aid | p. 306 |
| Safety Glasses | p. 306 |
| Science-Related General Safety Practices for Teachers | p. 306 |
| Suggestions for Working with Chemicals | p. 307 |
| Suggestions for Working with Electricity | p. 307 |
| Sample Interview Questions | p. 307 |
| Day and Night | p. 307 |
| Sound | p. 308 |
| Shadows | p. 308 |
| Light | p. 308 |
| Seasons | p. 308 |
| Electricity | p. 309 |
| Magnetism | p. 309 |
| Planning Science Field Trips | p. 309 |
| Field Trip Safety | p. 309 |
| Toxic Plants | p. 310 |
| Plants Poisonous to the Touch | p. 310 |
| Plants Poisonous When Eaten | p. 310 |
| Plants with Toxic Saps | p. 310 |
| Materials and Supplies for an Overnight Camping Experience | p. 310 |
| Useful Recipes and Formulas | p. 311 |
| Sterilizer for Goggles | p. 311 |
| Regular Cleaning Solution | p. 311 |
| Goop | p. 311 |
| Play Dough | p. 311 |
| Bubbles | p. 312 |
| Finger Paints | p. 312 |
| Notes on Animals in the Classroom | p. 312 |
| Resources for Teaching Science | p. 313 |
| Books about Science Teaching Resources | p. 313 |
| Periodicals | p. 313 |
| Science Trade Books | p. 315 |
| Resources for Planning Outdoor Activities | p. 317 |
| Suppliers of Equipment, Materials, and Media for Teaching Science | p. 317 |
| Equipment and Supply Catalog Companies | p. 320 |
| Site Related to Science Education on the World Wide Web | p. 321 |
| Science Education Associations Homepages | p. 321 |
| Research and Resource Sites | p. 321 |
| Materials and Supplies Commonly Used in Teaching Science | p. 325 |
| Miscellaneous Resources | p. 326 |
| References | p. 331 |
| Index | p. 343 |
| About the Authors | p. 351 |
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