| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Emergence of Gender in Criminology | |
| |
| |
| Invisibility of Women and Girls in Crime | |
| |
| |
| Women and Girls as Offenders | |
| |
| |
| Women and Girls as Victims | |
| |
| |
| Women as Professionals in the Crime-Processing System | |
| |
| |
| Blurring of Boundaries of Women's Experiences in Crime | |
| |
| |
| Sex Versus Gender | |
| |
| |
| What is Feminism? | |
| |
| |
| What is Feminist Method? | |
| |
| |
| Effect of Societal Images on Women in Crime | |
| |
| |
| Diversity among Women | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Female Offending | |
| |
| |
| |
| Critiquing Criminological Theories | |
| |
| |
| The Traditional Positivist Studies | |
| |
| |
| The Atavistic Female Offender | |
| |
| |
| The Unadjusted Girl | |
| |
| |
| Anatomy as Destiny | |
| |
| |
| Behind the Mask | |
| |
| |
| Legacy of the Positivist Theorists | |
| |
| |
| Strain and Subcultural Theories | |
| |
| |
| Strain Theory | |
| |
| |
| Delinquency and Opportunity | |
| |
| |
| General Strain Theory (GST) | |
| |
| |
| Tests of (Traditional) Strain and General Strain Theories | |
| |
| |
| Differential Association Theory (DAT) | |
| |
| |
| Labeling Theory | |
| |
| |
| Social Control Theory (SCT) | |
| |
| |
| Social Bond Theory | |
| |
| |
| Research on Social Control Theory | |
| |
| |
| Power Control Theory (PCT) | |
| |
| |
| Marxist, Radical, and Critical Theories | |
| |
| |
| Women's Liberation/Emancipation Hypothesis (WLEH) | |
| |
| |
| Biosocial and Evolutionary Psychological Theories | |
| |
| |
| Feminist and Pro-Feminist Theories | |
| |
| |
| Critical Race Feminism | |
| |
| |
| Messerschmidt's Masculinities and Crime Theories | |
| |
| |
| Cycle of Violence Theory | |
| |
| |
| Life Course Theory (LCT) | |
| |
| |
| Feminist Pathways Research | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Frequency and Nature of Female Offending | |
| |
| |
| Measuring Crime and Making Gender Comparisons | |
| |
| |
| The Importance of How Crime Rates are Measured and the Roles of Gender, Age, Race, Class, and Sexuality | |
| |
| |
| Age and Juvenile Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| Race/Ethnicity | |
| |
| |
| Class/Socioeconomic Status | |
| |
| |
| Sexuality | |
| |
| |
| The Frequency and Context of Women's and Girls' Offending for Specific Crimes | |
| |
| |
| Girl and Women Gangs | |
| |
| |
| Theft | |
| |
| |
| Robbery and Burglary | |
| |
| |
| White-Collar Crime | |
| |
| |
| Drug Use and Selling | |
| |
| |
| General Aggression | |
| |
| |
| Nonlethal and Lethal Child Abuse | |
| |
| |
| Homicide | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Processing Women and Girls in the System | |
| |
| |
| Criminal Laws and Sex Discrimination | |
| |
| |
| Sentencing Laws and Sex Discrimination | |
| |
| |
| Three Hypotheses of Sex Discrimination in Crime Processing | |
| |
| |
| Chivalry and Paternalism | |
| |
| |
| Empirical Findings on Gender Differences in Crime Processing | |
| |
| |
| Access to Chivalry: Discrimination among Women | |
| |
| |
| Reforms in the Processing of Juveniles | |
| |
| |
| The Presence of Gender Bias in Different Stages of Processing | |
| |
| |
| Gender Differences in Crime Processing Based on the Type of Offense | |
| |
| |
| Gender Stereotypes and Crime Processing | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Incarcerating, Punishing, and "Treating" Offending Women and Girls | |
| |
| |
| The History of Institutionalizing Female Offenders | |
| |
| |
| Punishment | |
| |
| |
| Reform | |
| |
| |
| Sex-Segregated Custodial Prisons | |
| |
| |
| Racist Segregation and Treatment in Girls' and Women's Institutions | |
| |
| |
| Women's Prisons in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s | |
| |
| |
| The Women's Prison Regime | |
| |
| |
| Rates of Imprisonment and a Portrayal of Incarcerated Girls and Women | |
| |
| |
| Girls' "Correctional" Institutions | |
| |
| |
| Psychological Aspects of Women's Imprisonment | |
| |
| |
| Parenthood: A Gender Difference Among Prisoners | |
| |
| |
| Educational, Vocational, and Recreational Programs | |
| |
| |
| Health Care Services | |
| |
| |
| HIV/AIDS | |
| |
| |
| Prenatal, Pregnancy, and Postpartum Health Care | |
| |
| |
| Mental Health Problems and Care | |
| |
| |
| Incarcerated Women and Girls with Disabilities | |
| |
| |
| The Prison Subculture | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Abuse of Women Prisoners | |
| |
| |
| Co-Corrections | |
| |
| |
| Women and the Death Penalty | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Female Victims of Male Violence | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Image of the Female Victim | |
| |
| |
| The Link Between Actual Victimizations and the Fear of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Effect of Culture on Gender Roles | |
| |
| |
| Gender Disparities in Power | |
| |
| |
| Threats of Violence | |
| |
| |
| Victim Blaming | |
| |
| |
| The Victimization of Women and Girls of Color | |
| |
| |
| The Victimization of Immigrant Women and Girls | |
| |
| |
| The Victimization of Women and Girls with Disabilities | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sexual Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Defining Sexual Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Historical Issues in Defining Sexual Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Statistics on Sexual Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Who are the Victims? | |
| |
| |
| Who are the Offenders? | |
| |
| |
| The Victim-Offender Relationship | |
| |
| |
| What Causes Sexual Abuse? | |
| |
| |
| Rape Myths | |
| |
| |
| The Role of Rape Myths and Other Causes of Sexual Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Child Sexual Victimization (CSA) | |
| |
| |
| Date Rape | |
| |
| |
| Marital Rape | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Harassment | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Victimization and the Criminal Legal System | |
| |
| |
| The Police | |
| |
| |
| The Court Process, or Whose Trial Is It Anyway? | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Notes | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intimate Partner Abuse and Stalking | |
| |
| |
| Defining Intimate Partner Abuse and Stalking | |
| |
| |
| Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA) | |
| |
| |
| Stalking | |
| |
| |
| The Historical Identification of IPA and Stalking as Social Problems | |
| |
| |
| The Frequency of IPA and Stalking | |
| |
| |
| Walker's Cycle Theory of Violence | |
| |
| |
| Why Do (Some) Men (and Women) Abuse and Stalk? | |
| |
| |
| Who are the Abusers and Stalkers? | |
| |
| |
| Inhibitors to Leaving an Abusive Relationship | |
| |
| |
| Economic Restrictions | |
| |
| |
| Sociological Restrictions | |
| |
| |
| Psychological Restrictions | |
| |
| |
| The Constant Threat of Danger | |
| |
| |
| IPA and Stalking and the Criminal Legal System | |
| |
| |
| The Police | |
| |
| |
| The Courts | |
| |
| |
| When Women Kill Abusive Partners in Self-Defense | |
| |
| |
| IPA and Health Professionals | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Notes | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Women Working in the Criminal Legal System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Women Working in Prisons and Jails | |
| |
| |
| A Brief History on Sex Discrimination in Women's Work Outside the Home | |
| |
| |
| Rates of Women Working in Prisons and Jails | |
| |
| |
| Comparing Racial and Gender Workplace Discrimination | |
| |
| |
| The Matron Role: Women's Breaking into Criminal Legal System Jobs through Sexist Stereotypical Positions | |
| |
| |
| The Powerful Role of Legislative and Court Rulings on Women's Work in the Criminal Legal System | |
| |
| |
| Post Title VII: Women as Tokens in the History of Women's Entry into Working as Prison and Jail Guards | |
| |
| |
| Prisoner Privacy and Prison Safety: Roadblocks for Women Guards in Male Prisons | |
| |
| |
| Gender Similarities and Differences in the lob Performances of Prison Workers | |
| |
| |
| Classifications of Women Prison Workers | |
| |
| |
| Resistance to Woman Workers | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Women Working in Policing and Law Enforcement | |
| |
| |
| The History of Women in Policing | |
| |
| |
| Rates of Women in Policing | |
| |
| |
| Why Do Women Want to be Police Officers? | |
| |
| |
| Gender Differences in Job Performance | |
| |
| |
| Classifications of Women Police Officers | |
| |
| |
| Resistance to Women Police Officers | |
| |
| |
| Struggles for the First Women on Patrol | |
| |
| |
| Evaluations of Women Police by Their Supervisors, Their Supervisees, and Citizens | |
| |
| |
| Gender and Stress | |
| |
| |
| The Intersection of Racism and Sexual Identity with Sexism for Women Police | |
| |
| |
| Some Steps Forward For Women, Some Steps Back | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Women Working in the Courts | |
| |
| |
| The History of Women on Juries | |
| |
| |
| The History of Women's Access to Legal Education and Training | |
| |
| |
| Women Attorneys | |
| |
| |
| The Number of Women Attorneys | |
| |
| |
| Classifications of Women Attorneys | |
| |
| |
| The Experiences of Women Attorneys | |
| |
| |
| The Gendered Implications of Marital and Family Status for Lawyers | |
| |
| |
| Managing Sexist Images | |
| |
| |
| The Gendered Placement of Lawyers | |
| |
| |
| Treatment by Male Coworkers and Supervisors | |
| |
| |
| The Gendered Nature of Income, "Making Partner," and Other Rewards for Lawyers | |
| |
| |
| The Gendered Nature of Sanctions against Lawyers | |
| |
| |
| Women Judges | |
| |
| |
| Women's Entry into Judgeships | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Women Judges and Their Experiences as Judges | |
| |
| |
| Looking for Gender Differences in Judges' Decision Making | |
| |
| |
| Women Law Professors | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effecting Change | |
| |
| |
| New Theories | |
| |
| |
| Changing the Treatment of Female Offenders | |
| |
| |
| Changing Responses to Male Violence Against Women | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Intimate Partner Abuse | |
| |
| |
| Changes for Women Working in the Criminal Legal System | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Name Index | |
| |
| |
| Subject Index | |