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| Preface | |
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| Introductory: Language Defined | |
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| Language a cultural, not a biologically inherited, function | |
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| Futility of interjectional and sound-imitative theories of the origin of speech | |
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| Definition of language | |
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| The psychophysical basis of speech | |
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| Concepts and language | |
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| Is thought possible without language? | |
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| Abbreviations and transfers of the speech process | |
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| The universality of language | |
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| The Elements of Speech | |
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| Sounds not properly elements of speech | |
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| Words and significant parts of words (radical elements, grammatical elements) | |
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| Types of words | |
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| The word a formal, not a functional unit | |
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| The word has a real psychological existence | |
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| The sentence | |
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| The cognitive, volitional, and emotional aspects of speech | |
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| Feeling-tones of words | |
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| The Sounds of Language | |
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| The vast number of possible sounds | |
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| The articulating organs and their share in the production of speechsounds: lungs, glottal cords, nose, mouth and its parts | |
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| Vowel articulations | |
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| How and where consonants are articulated | |
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| The phonetic habits of a language | |
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| The "values" of sounds | |
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| Phonetic patterns | |
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| Form in Language: Grammatical Processes | |
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| Formal processes as distinct from grammatical functions | |
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| Intercrossing of the two points of view | |
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| Six main types of grammatical process | |
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| Word sequence as a method | |
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| Compounding of radical elements | |
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| Affixing: prefixes and suffixes; infixes | |
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| Internal vocalic change; consonantal change | |
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| Reduplication | |
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| Functional variations of stress; of pitch | |
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| Form in Language: Grammatical Concepts | |
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| Analysis of a typical English sentence | |
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| Types of concepts illustrated by it | |
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| Inconsistent expression of analogous concepts | |
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| How the same sentence may be expressed in other languages with striking differences in the selection and grouping of concepts | |
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| Essential and non-essential concepts | |
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| The mixing of essential relational concepts with secondary ones of more concrete order | |
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| Form for form's sake | |
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| Classification of linguistic concepts: basic or concrete, derivational, concrete relational, pure relational | |
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| Tendency for these types of concepts to flow into each other | |
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| Categories expressed in various grammatical systems | |
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| Order and stress as relating principles in the sentence | |
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| Concord | |
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| Parts of speech: no absolute classification possible; noun and verb | |
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| Types of Linguistic Structure | |
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| The possibility of classifying languages | |
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| Difficulties | |
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| Classification into form-languages and formless languages not valid | |
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| Classification according to formal processes used not practicable | |
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| Classification according to degree of synthesis | |
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| "Inflective" and "agglutinative" | |
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| Fusion and symbolism as linguistic techniques | |
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| Agglutination | |
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| "Inflective" a confused term | |
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| Threefold classification suggested: what types of concepts are expressed? what is the prevailing technique? what is the degree of synthesis? Four fundamental conceptual types | |
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| Examples tabulated | |
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| Historical test of the validity of the suggested conceptual classification | |
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| Language as a Historical Product: Drift | |
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| Variability of language | |
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| Individual and dialectic variations | |
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| Time variation or "drift" | |
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| How dialects arise | |
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| Linguistic stocks | |
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| Direction or "slope" of linguistic drift | |
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| Tendencies illustrated in an English sentence | |
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| Hesitations of usage as symptomatic of the direction of drift | |
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| Leveling tendencies in English | |
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| Weakening of case elements | |
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| Tendency to fixed position in the sentence | |
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| Drift toward the invariable word | |
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| Language as a Historical Product: Phonetic Law | |
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| Parallels in drift in related languages | |
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| Phonetic law as illustrated in the history of certain English and German vowels and consonants | |
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| Regularity of phonetic law | |
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| Shifting of sounds without destruction of phonetic pattern | |
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| Difficulty of explaining the nature of phonetic drifts | |
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| Vowel mutation in English and German | |
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| Morphological influence on phonetic change | |
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| Analogical levelings to offset irregularities produced by phonetic laws | |
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| New morphological features due to phonetic change | |
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| How Languages Influence Each Other | |
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| Linguistic influences due to cultural contact | |
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| Borrowing of words | |
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| Resistances to borrowing | |
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| Phonetic modification of borrowed words | |
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| Phonetic interinfluencings of neighboring languages | |
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| Morphological borrowings | |
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| Morphological resemblances as vestiges of genetic relationship | |
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| Language, Race and Culture | |
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| Naive tendency to consider linguistic, racial, and cultural groupings as congruent | |
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| Race and language need not correspond | |
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| Cultural and linguistic boundaries not identical | |
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| Coincidences between linguistic cleavages and those of language and culture due to historical, not intrinsic psychological, causes | |
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| Language does not in any deep sense "reflect" culture | |
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| Language and Literature | |
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| Language as the material or medium of literature | |
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| Literature may move on the generalized linguistic plane or may be inseparable from specific linguistic conditions | |
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| Language as a collective art | |
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| Necessary esthetic advantages or limitations in any language | |
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| Style as conditioned by inherent features of the language | |
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| Prosody as conditioned by the phonetic dynamics of a language | |
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| Index | |