| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Environmental Data Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Importance of Scientifically Reliable and Legally Defensible Data | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sampling Error vs. Analytical Error During Data Acquisition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scope of Environmental Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Where, When, What, How, and How Many | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uniqueness of Modern Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Classical and Modern Analytical and Monitoring Techniques | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basics of Environmental Sampling and Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Essential Analytical and Organic Chemistry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Concentration Units | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Organic Pollutants and Their Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analytical Precision, Accuracy, and Recovery | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detection Limit and Quantitation Limit | |
| |
| |
| |
| Standard Calibration Curve | |
| |
| |
| |
| Essential Environmental Statistics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurements of Central Tendency and Dispersion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Understanding Probability Distributions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Type I and II Errors: False Positive and False Negative | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detection of Outliers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Censored Data | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Spatial and Time Series Data | |
| |
| |
| |
| Essential Hydrology and Geology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stream Water Flow and Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Groundwater Flow in Aquifers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Groundwater Wells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Essential Knowledge of Environmental Regulations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Major Regulations Administrated by the U.S. EPA | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Important Environmental Regulations | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Sampling Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Planning and Sampling Protocols | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Quality Objectives | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Considerations of Sampling Plan | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sampling Environmental Population | |
| |
| |
| |
| Where (Space) and When (Time) to Sample | |
| |
| |
| |
| Obtain Representative Samples from Various Matrices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Sampling Approaches: Where and When | |
| |
| |
| |
| Judgmental Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simple Random Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stratified Random Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Systematic Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Sampling Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Estimating Sample Numbers: How Many Samples are Required | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Environmental Sampling Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Guidelines of Environmental Sampling Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sequence of Sampling Matrices and Analytes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample Amount | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample Preservation and Storage | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selection of Sample Containers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selection of Sampling Equipment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Techniques for Sampling Various Media: Practical Approaches and Tips | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surface Water and Wastewater Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Groundwater Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Soil and Sediment Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hazardous Waste Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biological Sampling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Air and Stack Emission Sampling | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methodology and Quality Assurance/Quality Control of Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview on Standard Methodologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| The U.S. EPA Methods for Air, Water, Wastewater, and Hazardous Waste | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Applicable Methods: APHA/ASTM/OSHA/NIOSH/USGS/AOAC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selection of Standard Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods for Sample Preparation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods for Physical, Biological, and General Chemical Parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods for Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods for Semivolatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods for Other Pollutants and Compounds of Emerging Environmental Concerns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Field Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Field QA/QC Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Numbers of Field QA/QC Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analytical Quality Assurance/Quality Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quality Control Procedures for Sample Preparation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quality Control Procedures During Analysis | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Operations and Wet Chemical Methods in Environmental Laboratories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Operations in Environmental Laboratories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Labware Cleaning Protocols for Trace Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reagent Purity, Standard, and Reference Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Volumetric Glassware and Calibration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laboratory Health, Safety, and Emergency First Aid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Waste Handling and Disposal | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wet Chemical Methods and Common Techniques in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gravimetric and Volumetric Wet Chemical Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Laboratory Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analytical Principles for Common Wet Chemical Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Moisture in Solid and Biological Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solids in Water, Wastewater, and Sludge (TS, TSS, TDS, VS | |
| |
| |
| |
| Acidity, Alkalinity, and Hardness of Waters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxygen Demand in Water and Wastewater (DO, BOD and COD | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oil and Grease in Water and Wastewater | |
| |
| |
| |
| Residual Chlorine and Chloride in Drinking Water | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ammonia in Wastewater | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cyanide in Water, Wastewater and Soil Extract | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sulfide in Water and Waste | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fundamentals of Sample Preparation for Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview on Sample Preparation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Purpose of Sample Preparation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Sample Preparation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample Preparation for Metal Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Various Forms of Metals and Preparation Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Principles of Acid Digestion and Selection of Acid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alkaline Digestion and Other Extraction Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extraction for SVOC and Non-VOC from Liquid or Solid Samples | |
| |
| |
| |
| Separatory Funnel and Continuous Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solid Phase Extraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solid Phase Microextraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Soxhlet and Automatic Soxhlet Extraction (Soxtec | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ultrasonic Extraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pressured Fluid Extraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Supercritical Fluid Extraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison and Selection of Organic Extraction Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Post-Extraction Clean-up of Organic Compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theories and Operation Principles of Various Clean-up Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Recommended Clean-up Method for Selected Compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
| Derivatization of Non-VOC for Gas Phase Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample Preparation for VOC, Air and Stack Gas Emission | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dynamic Headspace Extraction (Purge-and-Trap | |
| |
| |
| |
| Static Headspace Extraction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Azeotropic and Vacuum Distillation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Volatile Organic Sampling Train | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| UV-Visible and Infrared Spectroscopic Methods in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to the Principles of Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Understanding the Interactions of Various Radiations with Matter | |
| |
| |
| |
| Origins of Absorption in Relation to Molecular Orbital Theories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Structure and UV-Visible/Infrared Spectra | |
| |
| |
| |
| Quantitative Analysis with Beer-Lambert's Law | |
| |
| |
| |
| UV-Visible Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| UV-Visible Instrumentation | |
| |
| |
| |
| UV-VIS as a Workhorse in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Infrared Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometers (FTIR | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dispersive Infrared Instruments (DIR | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nondispersive Infrared Instruments (NDIR | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications in Industrial Hygiene and Air Pollution Monitoring | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Aspects of UV-Visible and Infrared Spectrometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Tips for UV-Visible Spectroscopic Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sample Preparation for Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Atomic Spectroscopy for Metal Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to the Principles of Atomic Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame and Flameless Atomic Absorption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission | |
| |
| |
| |
| Atomic X-ray Fluorescence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instruments for Atomic Spectroscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flame and Flameless Atomic Absorption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cold Vapor and Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission | |
| |
| |
| |
| Atomic X-ray Fluorescence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Selection of the Proper Atomic Spectroscopic Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Detection Limits and Working Range | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Interferences and Other Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Tips to Sampling, Sample Preparation, and Metal Analysis | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chromatographic Methods for Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Chromatography and Separation Columns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Stationary Phases: The Key to Separation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Parameters Important to Compound Separation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Terms and Theories of Chromatogram | |
| |
| |
| |
| Use of Chromatograms for Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instruments of Chromatographic Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gas Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Supercritical Fluid Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Detectors for Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detectors for Gas Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detectors for High Performance Liquid Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detectors for Ion Chromatography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gases, Volatile, and Semivolatile Organics with GC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semivolatile and Nonvolatile Organics with HPLC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ionic Species with IC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Tips to Chromatographic Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| What Can and Cannot be Done with GC and HPLC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Development for GC and HPLC Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview on Maintenance and Troubleshooting | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrochemical Methods for Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction to Electrochemical Theories | |
| |
| |
| |
| Review of Redox Chemistry and Electrochemical Cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Principles of Electroanalytical Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Electrodes and Notations for Electrochemical Cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potentiometric Applications in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of pH | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Ions by Ion Selective Electrodes (ISEs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Potentiometric Titration | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Voltammetric Applications in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Anions by Amperometric Titration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Metals by Anodic Stripping Voltammetry (ASV | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Instrumental Methods in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hyphenated Mass Spectrometric Methods and Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Atomic Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS and LC-MS | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mass Spectrometric Applications in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR | |
| |
| |
| |
| NMR Spectrometers and the Origin of NMR Signals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Molecular Structures and NMR Spectra | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications of NMR in Environmental Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Miscellaneous Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radiochemical Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Surface and Interface Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screening Methods Using Immunoassay | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Questions and Problems | |
| |
| |
| Experiments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Analysis and Statistical Treatment: A Case Study on Ozone Concentrations in Cities of Houston-Galveston Area | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collection and Preservation of Surface Water and Sediment Samples and Field Measurement of Several Water Quality Parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gravimetric Analysis of Solids and Titrimetric Measurement of Alkalinity of Streams and Lakes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) by Titrimetric Winkler Method | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in Water and Wastewater | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Nitrate and Nitrite in Water by UV-Visible Spectrometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Anionic Surfactant (Detergent) by Liquid-Liquid Extraction Followed by Colorimetric Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Hexavalent and Trivalent Chromium (Cr<sup>6+</sup> and Cr<sup>3+</sup>) in Water by Visible Spectrometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Greenhouse Gases by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Metals in Soil-Acid Digestion and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Explosives Compounds in a Contaminated Soil by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Headspace Chloroethylene by Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID | |
| |
| |
| |
| Determination of Chloroethylene by Gas Chromatography with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD | |
| |
| |
| |
| Use of Ion Selective Electrode to Determine Trace Level of Fluoride in Drinking and Natural Water | |
| |
| |
| |
| Identification of BTEX and Chlorobenzene Compounds by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS | |
| |
| |
| Appendices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Abbreviations and Acronyms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Structures and Properties of Important Organic Pollutants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Standard Normal Cumulative Probabilities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Percentiles of t-Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Critical Values for the F-Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Required Containers, Preservation Techniques, and Holding Times | |
| |
| |
| Index | |