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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| An Introduction to Survey Methodology | |
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| Introduction | |
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| A Brief History of Survey Research | |
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| The Purposes of Surveys | |
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| The Development of Standardized Questioning | |
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| The Development of Sampling Methods | |
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| The Development of Data Collection Methods | |
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| Some Examples of Ongoing Surveys | |
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| The National Crime Victimization Survey | |
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| The National Survey on Drug Use and Health | |
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| The Survey of Consumers | |
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| The National Assessment of Educational Progress | |
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| The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System | |
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| The Current Employment Statistics Program | |
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| What Can We Learn From the Six Example Surveys? | |
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| What is Survey Methodology? | |
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| The Challenge of Survey Methodology | |
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| About this Book | |
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| Inference and Error in Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Lifecycle of a Survey From a Design Perspective | |
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| Constructs | |
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| Measurement | |
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| Response | |
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| Edited Response | |
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| The Target Population | |
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| The Frame Population | |
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| The Sample | |
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| The Respondents | |
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| Postsurvey Adjustments | |
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| How Design Becomes Process | |
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| The Lifecycle of a Survey from A Quality Perspective | |
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| The Observational Gap between Constructs and Measures | |
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| Measurement Error: The Observational Gap between the Ideal Measurement and the Response Obtained | |
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| Processing Error: the Observational Gap between the Variable Used in Estimation and that Provided by the Respondent | |
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| Coverage Error: the Nonobservational Gap between the Target Population and the Sampling Frame | |
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| Sampling Error: The Nonobservational Gap between the Sample and the Sampling Frame | |
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| Nonresponse Error: The Nonobservational Gap between the Sampling and the Respondent Pool | |
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| Adjustment Error | |
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| Putting It All Together | |
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| Error Notions in Different Kinds of Statistics | |
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| Summary | |
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| Target Populations, Sampling Frames, and Coverage Error | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Populations and Frames | |
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| Coverage Properties of Sampling Frames | |
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| Undercoverage | |
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| Ineligible Units | |
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| Clustering of Target Population Elements Within Frame Elements | |
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| Duplication of Target Population Elements in Sampling Frames | |
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| Complicated Mappings between Frame and Target Population Elements | |
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| Common Target Populations and Their Frame Issues | |
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| Households and Persons | |
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| Customers, Employees, or Members of an Organization | |
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| Organizations | |
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| Events | |
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| Rare Populations | |
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| Coverage Error | |
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| Reducing Undercoverage | |
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| The Half-Open Interval | |
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| Multiplicity Sampling | |
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| Multiple Frame Designs | |
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| Increasing Coverage While Including More Ineligible Elements | |
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| Summary | |
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| Sample Design and Sampling Error | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Samples and Estimates | |
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| Simple Random Sampling | |
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| Cluster Sampling | |
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| The Design Effect and Within-Cluster Homogeneity | |
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| Subsampling within Selected Clusters | |
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| Stratification and Stratified Sampling | |
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| Proportionate Allocation to Strata | |
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| Disproportionate Allocation to Strata | |
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| Systematic Selection | |
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| Complications in Practice | |
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| Two-Stage Cluster Designs with Probabilities Proportionate to Size (PPS) | |
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| Multistage and Other Complex Designs | |
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| How Complex Sample Designs are Described: The Sample Design for the NCVS | |
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| Sampling Persons in US Telephone Households | |
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| Summary | |
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| Methods of Data Collection | |
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| Alternative Methods of Data Collection | |
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| Degree of Interviewer Involvement | |
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| Degree of Interaction with the Respondent | |
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| Degree of Privacy | |
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| Channels of Communication | |
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| Technology Use | |
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| Implications of these Dimensions | |
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| Choosing the Appropriate Method | |
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| Effects of Different Data Collection Methods on Survey Errors | |
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| Measuring the Marginal Effect of Mode | |
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| Sampling Frame and Sample Design Implications of Mode Selection | |
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| Coverage Implications of Mode Selection | |
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| Nonresponse Implications of Mode Selection | |
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| Measurement Quality Implications of Mode Selection | |
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| Cost Implications | |
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| Summary on the Choice of Method | |
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| Using Multiple Modes of Data Collection | |
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| Summary | |
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| Nonresponse in Sample Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Three Major Types of Unit Nonresponse | |
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| Unit Nonresponse Due to Failure to Deliver the Survey Request | |
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| Unit Nonresponse Due to Refusals | |
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| Unit Nonresponse Due to the Inability to Provide the Requested Data | |
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| How Does Nonresponse Affect the Quality of Survey Statistics? | |
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| Computing Response and Nonresponse Rates | |
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| Trends in Response Rates over Time | |
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| Item Nonresponse | |
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| Design Features to Reduce Unit Nonresponse | |
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| Summary | |
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| Questions and Answers in Surveys | |
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| Alternatives Methods of Survey Measurement | |
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| Cognitive Processes in Answering Questions | |
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| Comprehension | |
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| Retrieval | |
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| Estimation and Judgment | |
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| Reporting | |
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| Other Models of the Response Process | |
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| Problems in Answering Survey Questions | |
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| Encoding Problems | |
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| Misinterpreting the Questions | |
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| Forgetting and Other Memory Problems | |
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| Estimation Processes for Behavioral Questions | |
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| Judgment Processes for Attitude Questions | |
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| Formatting the Answer | |
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| Motivated Misreporting | |
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| Navigational Errors | |
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| Guidelines for Writing Good Questions | |
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| Nonsensitive Questions About Behavior | |
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| Sensitive Questions About Behavior | |
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| Attitude Questions | |
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| Self-Administered Questions | |
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| Summary | |
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| Evaluating Survey Questions | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Expert Reviews | |
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| Focus Groups | |
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| Cognitive Interviews | |
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| Field Pretests and Behavior Coding | |
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| Randomized or Split-Ballot Experiments | |
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| Applying Question Standards | |
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| Summary of Question Evaluation Tools | |
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| Linking Concepts of Measurement Quality to Statistical Estimates | |
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| Validity | |
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| Response Bias | |
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| Reliability and Simple Response Variance | |
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| Summary | |
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| Survey Interviewing | |
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| The Role of the Interviewer | |
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| Interviewer Bias | |
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| Systematic Interviewer Effects on Reporting of Socially Undesirable Attributes | |
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| Systematic Interviewer Effects on Topics Related to Observable Interviewer Traits | |
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| Systematic Interviewer Effects Associated with Interviewer Experience | |
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| Interviewer Variance | |
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| Randomization Requirements for Estimating Interviewer Variance | |
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| Estimation of Interviewer Variance | |
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| Strategies for Reducing Interviewer Bias | |
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| The Role of the Interviewer in Motivating Respondent Behavior | |
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| Changing Interviewer Behavior | |
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| Strategies for Reducing Interviewer-Related Variance | |
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| Minimizing Questions that Require Nonstandard Interviewer Behavior | |
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| Professional, Task-Oriented Interviewer Behavior | |
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| Interviewers Reading Questions as They Are Worded | |
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| Interviewers Explaining the Survey Process to the Respondent | |
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| Interviewers Probing Nondirectively | |
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| Interviewers Recording Answers Exactly as Given | |
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| Summary on Strategies to Reduce Interviewer Variance | |
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| The Controversy About Standardized Interviewing | |
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| Interviewer Management | |
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| Interviewer Selection | |
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| Interviewer Training | |
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| Interviewer Supervision and Monitoring | |
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| The Size of Interviewer Workloads | |
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| Interviewers and Computer Use | |
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| Summary | |
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| Postcollection Processing of Survey Data | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Coding | |
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| Practical Issues of Coding | |
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| Theoretical Issues in Coding Activities | |
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| "Field Coding"--An Intermediate Design | |
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| Standard Classification Systems | |
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| Other Common Coding Systems | |
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| Quality Indicators in Coding | |
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| Summary of Coding | |
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| Entering Numeric Data into Files | |
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| Editing | |
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| Weighting | |
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| Weighting with a First-Stage Ratio Adjustment | |
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| Weighting for Differential Selection Probabilities | |
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| Weighting to Adjust for Unit Nonresponse | |
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| Poststratification Weighting | |
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| Putting All the Weights Together | |
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| Imputation for Item-missing data | |
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| Sampling Variance Estimation for Complex Samples | |
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| Survey Data Documentation and Metadata | |
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| Summary of Postsurvey Processing | |
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| Principles and Practices Related to Scientific Integrity | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Standards for the Conduct of Research | |
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| Standards for Dealing with Clients | |
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| Standards for Dealing with the Public | |
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| Standards for Dealing with Respondents | |
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| Legal Obligations to Survey Respondents | |
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| Ethical Obligations to Respondents | |
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| Informed Consent: Respect for Persons | |
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| Beneficence: Protecting Respondents from Harm | |
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| Efforts at Persuasion | |
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| Emerging Ethical Issues | |
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| Practices in Research Administration Regarding Human Subject Issues | |
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| Research About Informed Consent Protocols in Surveys | |
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| Research on Respondents' Reactions to the Content of Informed Consent Protocols | |
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| Research on Informed Consent Complications in Survey Methodological Studies | |
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| Research on Written versus Oral Informed Consent | |
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| Summary of Research on Informed Consent in Surveys | |
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| Procedures to Detect and Repair Interviewer Falsification | |
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| Disclosure Limitation Procedures | |
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| Administrative Procedures to Limit Identifiability of Survey Materials | |
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| Restricting Access to the Data Only to Those Subscribing to a Pledge of Confidentiality | |
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| Restricting the Contents of the Survey Data That May Be Released | |
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| Summary and Conclusions | |
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| FAQs about Survey Methodology | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Questions and Their Answers | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |