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| Foreword | |
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| Preface | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Three I's of Virtual Reality | |
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| A Short History of Early Virtual Reality | |
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| Early Commercial VR Technology | |
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| VR Becomes an Industry | |
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| The Five Classic Components of a VR System | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Input Devices: Trackers, Navigation, and Gesture Interfaces | |
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| Three-Dimensional Position Trackers | |
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| Tracker Performance Parameters | |
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| Mechanical Trackers | |
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| Magnetic Trackers | |
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| Ultrasonic Trackers | |
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| Optical Trackers | |
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| Hybrid Intertial Trackers | |
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| Navigation and Manipulation Interfaces | |
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| Tracker-Based Navigation/Manipulation Interfaces | |
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| Trackballs | |
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| Three-Dimensional Probes | |
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| Gesture Interfaces | |
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| The Pinch Glove | |
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| The 5DT Data Glove | |
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| The Didjiglove | |
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| The CyberGlove | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Output Devices: Graphics, Three-Dimensional Sound, and Haptic Displays | |
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| Graphics Displays | |
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| The Human Visual System | |
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| Personal Graphics Displays | |
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| Large-Volume Displays | |
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| Sound Displays | |
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| The Human Auditory System | |
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| The Convolvotron | |
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| Speaker-Based Three-Dimensional Sound | |
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| Haptic Feedback | |
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| The Human Haptic System | |
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| Tactile Feedback Interfaces | |
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| Force Feedback Interfaces | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Computing Architectures for VR | |
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| The Rendering Pipeline | |
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| The Graphics Rendering Pipeline | |
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| The Haptics Rendering Pipeline | |
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| PC Graphics Architecture | |
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| PC Graphics Accelerators | |
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| Graphics Benchmarks | |
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| Workstation-Based Architectures | |
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| The Sun Blade 1000 Architecture | |
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| The SGI Infinite Reality Architecture | |
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| Distributed VR Architectures | |
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| Multipipeline Synchronization | |
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| Colocated Rendering Pipelines | |
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| Distributed Virtual Environments | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Modeling | |
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| Geometric Modeling | |
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| Virtual Object Shape | |
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| Object Visual Appearance | |
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| Kinematics Modeling | |
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| Homogeneous Transformation Matrices | |
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| Object Position | |
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| Transformation Invariants | |
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| Object Hierarchies | |
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| Viewing the Three-Dimensional World | |
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| Physical Modeling | |
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| Collision Detection | |
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| Surface Deformation | |
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| Force Computation | |
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| Force Smoothing and Mapping | |
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| Haptic Texturing | |
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| Behavior Modeling | |
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| Model Management | |
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| Level-of-Detail Management | |
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| Cell Segmentation | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| VR Programming | |
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| Toolkits and Scene Graphs | |
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| WorldToolKit | |
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| Model Geometry and Appearance | |
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| The WTK Scene Graph | |
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| Sensors and Action Functions | |
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| WTK Networking | |
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| Java 3D | |
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| Model Geometry and Appearance | |
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| Java 3D Scene Graph | |
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| Sensors and Behaviors | |
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| Java 3D Networking | |
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| WTK and Java 3D Performance Comparison | |
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| General Haptics Open Software Toolkit | |
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| GHOST Integration with the Graphics Pipeline | |
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| The GHOST Haptics Scene Graph | |
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| Collision Detection and Response | |
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| Graphics and PHANToM Calibration | |
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| PeopleShop | |
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| DI-Guy Geometry and Path | |
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| Sensors and Behaviors | |
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| PeopleShop Networking | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Human Factors in VR | |
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| Methodology and Terminology | |
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| Data Collection and Analysis | |
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| Usability Engineering Methodology | |
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| User Performance Studies | |
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| Testbed Evaluation of Universal VR Tasks | |
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| Influence of System Responsiveness on User Performance | |
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| Influence of Feedback Multimodality | |
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| VR Health and Safety Issues | |
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| Direct Effects of VR Simulations on Users | |
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| Cybersickness | |
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| Adaptation and Aftereffects | |
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| Guidelines for Proper VR Usage | |
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| VR and Society | |
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| Impact on Professional Life | |
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| Impact on Private Life | |
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| Impact on Public Life | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Traditional VR Applications | |
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| Medical Applications of VR | |
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| Virtual Anatomy | |
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| Triage and Diagnostic | |
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| Surgery | |
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| Rehabilitation | |
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| Education, Arts, and Entertainment | |
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| VR in Education | |
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| VR and the Arts | |
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| Entertainment Applications of VR | |
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| Military VR Applications | |
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| Army Use of VR | |
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| VR Applications in the Navy | |
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| Air Force Use of VR | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Emerging Applications of VR | |
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| VR Applications in Manufacturing | |
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| Virtual Prototyping | |
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| Other VR Applications in Manufacturing | |
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| Applications of VR in Robotics | |
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| Robot Programming | |
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| Robot Teleoperation | |
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| Information Visualization | |
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| Oil Exploration and Well Management | |
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| Volumetric Data Visualization | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |