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Introduction | |
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Descriptive Statistics | |
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Inferential Statistics | |
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Our Concern: Applied Statistics | |
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Variables and Constants | |
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Scales of Measurement | |
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Scales of Measurement and Problems of Statistical Treatment | |
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Do Statistics Lie? | |
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Point of Controversy: Are Statistical Procedures Necessary? | |
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Some Tips on Studying Statistics | |
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Statistics and Computers | |
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Summary | |
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Frequency Distributions, Percentiles, and Percentile Ranks | |
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Organizing Qualitative Data | |
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Grouped Scores | |
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How to Construct a Grouped Frequency Distribution | |
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Apparent versus Real Limits | |
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The Relative Frequency Distribution | |
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The Cumulative Frequency Distribution | |
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Percentiles and Percentile Ranks | |
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Computing Percentiles from Grouped Data | |
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Computation of Percentile Rank | |
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Summary | |
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Graphic Representation of Frequency Distributions | |
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Basic Procedures | |
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The Histogram | |
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The Frequency Polygon | |
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Choosing between a Histogram and a Polygon | |
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The Bar Diagram and the Pie Chart | |
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The Cumulative Percentage Curve | |
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Factors Affecting the Shape of Graphs | |
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Shape of Frequency Distributions | |
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Summary | |
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Central Tendency | |
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The Mode | |
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The Median | |
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The Mean | |
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Properties of the Mode | |
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Properties of the Mean | |
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Point of Controversy: Is It Permissible to Calculate the Mean for Tests in the Behavioral Sciences? | |
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Properties of the Median | |
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Measures of Central Tendency in Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Distributions | |
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The Effects of Score Transformations | |
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Summary | |
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Variability and Standard (z) Scores | |
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The Range and Semi-Interquartile Range | |
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Deviation Scores | |
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Deviational Measures: The Variance | |
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Deviational Measures: The Standard Deviation | |
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Calculation of the Variance and Standard Deviation: Raw-Score Method | |
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Calculation of the Standard Deviation with IBM SPSS (formerly SPSS) | |
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Point of Controversy: Calculating the Sample Variance: Should We Divide by n or (n - 1)? | |
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Properties of the Range and Semi-Interquartile Range | |
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Properties of the Standard Deviation | |
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How Big Is a Standard Deviation? | |
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Score Transformations and Measures of Variability | |
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Standard Scores (z Scores) | |
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A Comparison of z Scores and Percentile Ranks | |
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Summary | |
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Standard Scores and the Normal Curve | |
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Historical Aspects of the Normal Curve | |
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The Nature of the Normal Curve | |
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Standard Scores and the Normal Curve | |
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The Standard Normal Curve: Finding Areas When the Score Is Known | |
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The Standard Normal Curve: Finding Scores When the Area Is Known | |
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The Normal Curve as a Model for Real Variables | |
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The Normal Curve as a Model for Sampling Distributions | |
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Summary | |
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Point of Controversy: How Normal Is the Normal Curve? | |
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Correlation | |
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Some History | |
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Graphing Bivariate Distributions: The Scatter Diagram | |
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Correlation: A Matter of Direction | |
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Correlation: A Matter of Degree | |
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Understanding the Meaning of Degree of Correlation | |
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Formulas for Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation | |
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Calculating r from Raw Scores | |
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Calculating r with IBM SPSS | |
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Spearman's Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient | |
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Correlation Does Not Prove Causation | |
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The Effects of Score Transformations | |
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Cautions Concerning Correlation Coefficients | |
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Summary | |
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Prediction | |
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The Problem of Prediction | |
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The Criterion of Best Fit | |
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Point of Controversy: Least-Squares Regression versus the Resistant Line | |
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The Regression Equation: Standard-Score Form | |
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The Regression Equation: Raw-Score Form | |
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Error of Prediction: The Standard Error of Estimate | |
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An Alternative (and Preferred) Formula for S<sub>YX</sub> | |
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Calculating the "Raw-Score" Regression Equation and Standard Error of Estimate with IBM SPSS | |
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Error in Estimating Y from X | |
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Cautions Concerning Estimation of Predictive Error | |
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Prediction Does Not Prove Causation | |
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Summary | |
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Interpretive Aspects of Correlation and Regression | |
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Factors Influencing r: Degree of Variability in Each Variable | |
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Interpretation of r: The Regression Equation I | |
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Interpretation of r: The Regression Equation II | |
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Interpretation of r: Proportion of Variation in Y Not Associated with | |
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Variation in X | |
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Interpretation of r: Proportion of Variation in Y Associated with | |
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Variation in X | |
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Interpretation of r: Proportion of Correct Placements | |
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Summary | |
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Probability | |
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Defining Probability | |
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A Mathematical Model of Probability | |
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Two Theorems in Probability | |
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An Example of a Probability Distribution: The Binomial | |
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Applying the Binomial | |
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Probability and Odds | |
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Are Amazing Coincidences Really That Amazing? | |
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Summary | |
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Random Sampling and Sampling Distributions | |
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Random Sampling | |
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Using a Table of Random Numbers | |
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The Random Sampling Distribution of the Mean: An Introduction | |
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Characteristics of the Random Sampling Distribution of the Mean | |
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Using the Sampling Distribution of X to Determine the Probability for Different Ranges of Values of X | |
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Random Sampling Without Replacement | |
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Summary | |
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Introduction to Statistical Inference: Testing Hypotheses about Single Means (z and t) | |
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Testing a Hypothesis about a Single Mean | |
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The Null and Alternative Hypotheses | |
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When Do We Retain and When Do We Reject the Null Hypothesis? | |
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Review of the Procedure for Hypothesis Testing | |
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Dr. Brown's Problem: Conclusion | |
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The Statistical Decision | |
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Choice of H<sub>A</sub>: One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests | |
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Review of Assumptions in Testing Hypotheses about a Single Mean | |
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Point of Controversy: The Single-Subject Research Design | |
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Estimating the Standard Error of the Mean When � Is Unknown | |
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The t Distribution | |
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Characteristics of Student's Distribution of t | |
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Degrees of Freedom and Student's Distribution of t | |
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An Example: Has the Violent Content of Television Programs Increased? | |
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Calculating t from Raw Scores | |
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Calculating t with IBM SPSS | |
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Levels of Significance versus p-Values | |
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Summary | |
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Interpreting the Results of Hypothesis Testing: Effect Size, Type I and Type II Errors, and Power | |
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A Statistically Significant Difference versus a Practically Important Difference | |
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Point of Controversy: The Failure to Publish "Nonsignificant" Results | |
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Effect Size | |
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Errors in Hypothesis Testing | |
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The Power of a Test | |
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Factors Affecting Power: Difference between the True Population Mean and the Hypothesized Mean (Size of Effect) | |
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Factors Affecting Power: Sample Size | |
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Factors Affecting Power:Variability of the Measure | |
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Factors Affecting Power: Level of Significance (�) | |
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Factors Affecting Power: One-Tailed versus Two-Tailed Tests | |
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Calculating the Power of a Test | |
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Point of Controversy: Meta-Analysis | |
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Estimating Power and Sample Size for Tests of Hypotheses about Means | |
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Problems in Selecting a Random Sample and in Drawing Conclusions | |
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Summary | |
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Testing Hypotheses about the Difference between Two Independent Groups | |
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The Null and Alternative Hypotheses | |
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The Random Sampling Distribution of the Difference between Two Sample Means | |
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Properties of the Sampling Distribution of the Difference between Means | |
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Determining a Formula for t | |
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Testing the Hypothesis of No Difference between Two Independent Means: The Dyslexic Children Experiment | |
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Use of a One-Tailed Test | |
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Calculation of t with IBM SPSS | |
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Sample Size in Inference about Two Means | |
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Effect Size | |
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Estimating Power and Sample Size for Tests of Hypotheses about the Difference between Two Independent Means | |
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Assumptions Associated with Inference about the Difference between Two Independent Means | |
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The Random-Sampling Model versus the Random-Assignment Model | |
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Random Sampling and Random Assignment as Experimental Controls | |
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Summary | |
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Testing for a Difference between Two Dependent (Correlated) Groups | |
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Determining a Formula for t | |
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Degrees of Freedom for Tests of No Difference between Dependent Means | |
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An Alternative Approach to the Problem of Two Dependent Means | |
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Testing a Hypothesis about Two Dependent Means: Does Text Messaging Impair Driving? | |
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Calculating t with IBM SPSS | |
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Effect Size | |
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Power | |
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Assumptions When Testing a Hypothesis about the Difference between Two Dependent Means | |
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Problems with Using the Dependent-Samples Design | |
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Summary | |
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Inference about Correlation Coefficients | |
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The Random Sampling Distribution of r | |
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Testing the Hypothesis that r = 0 | |
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Fisher's z' Transformation | |
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Strength of Relationship | |
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A Note about Assumptions | |
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Inference When Using Spearman's r<sub>S</sub> | |
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Summary | |
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An Alternative to Hypothesis Testing: Confidence Intervals | |
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Examples of Estimation | |
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Confidence Intervals for �<sub>X</sub> | |
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The Relation between Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing | |
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The Advantages of Confidence Intervals | |
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Random Sampling and Generalizing Results | |
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Evaluating a Confidence Interval | |
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Point of Controversy: Objectivity and Subjectivity in Inferential Statistics: Bayesian Statistics | |
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Confidence Intervals for �<sub>X</sub> - �<sub>Y</sub> | |
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Sample Size Required for Confidence Intervals of �<sub>X</sub> and �<sub>X</sub> - �<sub>Y</sub> | |
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Confidence Intervals for � | |
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Where are We in Statistical Reform? | |
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Summary | |
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Testing for Differences among Three or More Groups: One-Way Analysis of Variance (and Some Alternatives) | |
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The Null Hypothesis | |
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The Basis of One-Way Analysis of Variance:Variation within and between Groups | |
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Partition of the Sums of Squares | |
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Degrees of Freedom | |
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Variance Estimates and the F Ratio | |
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The Summary Table | |
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Example: Does Playing Violent Video Games Desensitize People to Real-Life Aggression? | |
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Comparison of t and F | |
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Raw-Score Formulas for Analysis of Variance | |
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Calculation of ANOVA for Independent Measures with IBM SPSS | |
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Assumptions Associated with ANOVA | |
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Effect Size | |
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ANOVA and Power | |
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Post Hoc Comparisons | |
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Some Concerns about Post Hoc Comparisons | |
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An Alternative to the F Test: Planned Comparisons | |
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How to Construct Planned Comparisons | |
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Analysis of Variance for Repeated Measures | |
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Calculation of ANOVA for Repeated Measures with IBM SPSS | |
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Summary | |
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Factorial Analysis of Variance: The Two-Factor Design | |
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Main Effects | |
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Interaction | |
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The Importance of Interaction | |
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Partition of the Sums of Squares for Two-Way ANOVA | |
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Degrees of Freedom | |
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Variance Estimates and F Tests | |
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Studying the Outcome of Two-Factor Analysis of Variance | |
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Effect Size | |
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Calculation of Two-Factor ANOVA with IBM SPSS | |
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Planned Comparisons | |
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Assumptions of the Two-Factor Design and the Problem of Unequal Numbers of Scores | |
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Mixed Two-Factor Within-Subjects Design | |
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Calculation of the Mixed Two-Factor Within-Subjects Design with IBM SPSS | |
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Summary | |
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Chi-Square and Inference about Frequencies | |
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The Chi-Squre Test for Goodness of Fit | |
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Chi-Square (�<sup>2</sup>) as a Measure of the Difference between Observed and Expected Frequencies | |
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The Logic of the Chi-Square Test | |
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Interpretation of the Outcome of a Chi-Square Test | |
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Different Hypothesized Proportions in the Test for Goodness of Fit | |
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Effect Size for Goodness-of-Fit Problems | |
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Assumptions in the Use of the Theoretical Distribution of Chi-Square | |
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Chi-Square as a Test for Independence between Two Variables | |
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Finding Expected Frequencies in a Contingency Table | |
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Calculation of �<sup>2</sup> and Determination of Significance in a Contingency Table | |
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Measures of Effect Size (Strength of Association) for Tests of Independence | |
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Point of Controversy: Yates' Correction for Continuity | |
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Power and the Chi-Square Test of Independence | |
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Summary | |
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Some (Almost) Assumption-Free Tests | |
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The Null Hypothesis in Assumption-Freer Tests | |
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Randomization Tests | |
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Rank-Order Tests | |
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The Bootstrap Method of Statistical Inference | |
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An Assumption-Freer Alternative to the t Test of a Difference between Two Independent Groups: The Mann-Whitney U Test | |
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Point of Controversy: A Comparison of the t Test and Mann-Whitney U Test with Real-World Distributions | |
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An Assumption-Freer Alternative to the t Test of a Difference between Two Dependent Groups: The Sign Test | |
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Another Assumption-Freer Alternative to the t Test of a Difference between Two Dependent Groups: The Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test | |
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An Assumption-Freer Alternative to One-Way ANOVA for Independent Groups: The Kruskal-Wallis Test | |
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An Assumption-Freer Alternative to ANOVA for Repeated Measures: | |
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Friedman's Rank Test for Correlated Samples | |
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Summary | |
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Review of Basic Mathematics | |
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List of Symbols | |
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Answers to Problems | |
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Statistical Tables | |
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Areas under the Normal Curve Corresponding to Given Values of z | |
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The Binomial Distribution | |
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Random Numbers | |
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Student's t Distribution | |
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The F Distribution | |
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The Studentized Range Statistic | |
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Values of the Correlation Coefficient Required for Different Levels of Significance When H<sub>0</sub>: r= 0 | |
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Values of Fisher's z' for Values of r | |
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The �<sup>2</sup> Distribution | |
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Critical One-Tail Values of SR<sub>X</sub> for the Mann-Whitney U Test | |
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Critical Values for the Smaller of R<sub>+</sub> or R<sub>-</sub> for the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test | |
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Epilogue: The Realm of Statistics | |
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ReferenceS | |
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Index | |