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Preface to the Fourth Edition | |
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Biomechanics as an Interdiscipline | |
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Introduction | |
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Measurement, Description, Analysis, and Assessment | |
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Measurement, Description, and Monitoring | |
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Analysis | |
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Assessment and Interpretation | |
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Biomechanics and its Relationship with Physiology and Anatomy | |
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Scope of the Textbook | |
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Signal Processing | |
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Kinematics | |
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Kinetics | |
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Anthropometry | |
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Muscle and Joint Biomechanics | |
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Electromyography | |
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Synthesis of Human Movement | |
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Biomechanical Motor Synergies | |
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References | |
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Signal Processing | |
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Introduction | |
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Auto-and Cross-Correlation Analyses | |
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Similarity to the Pearson Correlation | |
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Formulae for Auto- and Cross-Correlation Coefficients | |
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Four Properties of the Autocorrelation Function | |
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Three Properties of the Cross-Correlation Function | |
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Importance in Removing the Mean Bias from the Signal | |
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Digital Implementation of Auto- and Cross-Correlation Functions | |
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Application of Autocorrelations | |
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Applications of Cross-Correlations | |
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Frequency Analysis | |
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Introduction-Time Domain vs. Frequency Domain | |
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Discrete Fourier (Harmonic) Analysis | |
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Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) | |
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Applications of Spectrum Analyses | |
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Ensemble Averaging of Repetitive Waveforms | |
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Examples of Ensemble-Averaged Profiles | |
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Normalization of Time Bases to 100% | |
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Measure of Average Variability about the Mean Waveform | |
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References | |
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Kinematics | |
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Historical Development and Complexity of Problem | |
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Kinematic Conventions | |
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Absolute Spatial Reference System | |
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Total Description of a Body Segment in Space | |
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Direct Measurement Techniques | |
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Goniometers | |
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Special Joint Angle Measuring Systems | |
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Accelerometers | |
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Imaging Measurement Techniques | |
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Review of Basic Lens Optics | |
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f-Stop Setting and Field of Focus | |
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Cinematography | |
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Television | |
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Optoelectric Techniques | |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Systems | |
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Summary of Various Kinematic Systems | |
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Processing of Raw Kinematic Data | |
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Nature of Unprocessed Image Data | |
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Signal versus Noise in Kinematic Data | |
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Problems of Calculating Velocities and Accelerations | |
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Smoothing and Curve Fitting of Data | |
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Comparison of Some Smoothing Techniques | |
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Calculation of Other Kinematic Variables | |
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Limb-Segment Angles | |
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Joint Angles | |
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Velocities-Linear and Angular | |
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Accelerations-Linear and Angular | |
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Problems Based on Kinematic Data | |
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References | |
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Anthropometry | |
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Scope of Anthropometry in Movement Biomechanics | |
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Segment Dimensions | |
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DensityMassand Inertial Properties | |
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Whole-Body Density | |
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Segment Densities | |
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Segment Mass and Center of Mass | |
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Center of Mass of a Multisegment System | |
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Mass Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration | |
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Parallel-Axis Theorem | |
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Use of Anthropometric Tables and Kinematic Data | |
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Direct Experimental Measures | |
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Location of the Anatomical Center of Mass of the Body | |
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Calculation of the Mass of a Distal Segment | |
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Moment of Inertia of a Distal Segment | |
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Joint Axes of Rotation | |
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Muscle Anthropometry | |
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Cross-Sectional Area of Muscles | |
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Change in Muscle Length during Movement | |
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Force per Unit Cross-Sectional Area (Stress) | |
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Mechanical Advantage of Muscle | |
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Multijoint Muscles | |
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Problems Based on Anthropometric Data | |
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References | |
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Kinetics: Forces and Moments of Force | |
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Biomechanical Models | |
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Link-Segment Model Development | |
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Forces Acting on the Link-Segment Model | |
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Joint Reaction Forces and Bone-on-Bone Forces | |
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Basic Link-Segment Equations-the Free-Body Diagram | |
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Force Transducers and Force Plates | |
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Multidirectional Force Transducers117 | |
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Force Plates | |
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Special Pressure-Measuring Sensory Systems | |
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Synchronization of Force Plate and Kinematic Data | |
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Combined Force Plate and Kinematic Data | |
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Interpretation of Moment-of-Force Curves | |
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A Note about the Wrong Way to Analyze Moments of Force | |
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Differences between Center of Mass and Center of Pressure | |
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Kinematics and Kinetics of the Inverted Pendulum Mode | |
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Bone-on-Bone Forces During Dynamic Conditions | |
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Indeterminacy in Muscle Force Estimates | |
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Example Problem (Scott and Winter1990) | |
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Problems Based on Kinetic and Kinematic Data | |
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References | |
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Mechanical Work, Energy, and Power | |
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Introduction | |
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Mechanical Energy and Work | |
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Law of Conservation of Energy | |
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Internal versus External Work | |
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Positive Work of Muscles | |
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Negative Work of Muscles | |
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Muscle Mechanical Power | |
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Mechanical Work of Muscles | |
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Mechanical Work Done on an External Load | |
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Mechanical Energy Transfer between Segments | |
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Efficiency | |
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Causes of Inefficient Movement | |
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Summary of Energy Flows | |
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Forms of Energy Storage | |
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Energy of a Body Segment and Exchanges of Energy Within the Segment | |
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Total Energy of a Multisegment System | |
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Calculation of Internal and External Work | |
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Internal Work Calculation | |
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External Work Calculation | |
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Power Balances at Joints and Within Segments | |
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Energy Transfer via Muscles | |
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Power Balance Within Segments | |
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Problems Based on Kinetic and Kinematic Data | |
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References | |
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Three-Dimensional Kinematics and Kinetics | |
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Introduction | |
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Axes Systems | |
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Global Reference System | |
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Local Reference Systems and Rotation of Axes | |
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Other Possible Rotation Sequences | |
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Dot and Cross Products | |
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Marker and Anatomical Axes Systems | |
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Example of a Kinematic Data Set | |
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Determination of Segment Angular Velocities and Accelerations | |
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Kinetic Analysis of Reaction Forces and Moments | |
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Newtonian Three-Dimensional Equations of Motion for a Segment | |
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Eider's Three-Dimensional Equations of Motion for a Segment | |
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Example of a Kinetic Data Set | |
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Joint Mechanical Powers | |
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Sample Moment and Power Curves | |
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Suggested Further Reading | |
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References | |
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Synthesis of Human Movement-Forward Solutions | |
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Introduction | |
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Assumptions and Constraints of Forward Solution Models | |
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Potential of Forward Solution Simulations | |
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Review of Forward Solution Models | |
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Mathematical Formulation | |
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Lagrange's Equations of Motion | |
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The Generalized Coordinates and Degrees of Freedom | |
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The Lagrangian Function L | |
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Generalized Forces [Q] | |
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Lagrange's Equations | |
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Points and Reference Systems | |
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Displacement and Velocity Vectors | |
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System Energy | |
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Segment Energy | |
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Spring Potential Energy and Dissipative Energy | |
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External Forces and Torques | |
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Designation of Joints | |
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Illustrative Example | |
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Conclusions | |
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References | |
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Muscle Mechanics | |
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Introduction | |
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The Motor Unit | |
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Recruitment of Motor Units | |
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Size Principle | |
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Types of Motor Units-Fast- and Slow-Twitch Classification | |
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The Muscle Twitch | |
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Shape of Graded Contractions | |
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Force-Length Characteristics of Muscles | |
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Force-Length Curve of the Contractile Element | |
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Influence of Parallel Connective Tissue | |
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Series Elastic Tissue | |
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In Vivo Force-Length Measures | |
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Force-Velocity Characteristics | |
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Concentric Contractions | |
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Eccentric Contractions | |
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Combination of Length and Velocity versus Force | |
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Combining Muscle Characteristics with Load Characteristics: Equilibrium | |
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Muscle Modeling | |
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Example of a Model-EMG Driven | |
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References | |
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Kinesiological Electromyography | |
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Introduction | |
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Electrophysiology of Muscle Contraction | |
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Motor End Plate | |
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Sequence of Chemical Events Leading to a Twitch | |
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Generation of a Muscle Action Potential | |
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Duration of the Motor Unit Action Potential | |
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Detection of Motor Unit Action Potentials from Electromyogram during Graded Contractions | |
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Recording of the Electromyogram | |
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Amplifier Gain | |
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Input Impedance | |
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Frequency Response | |
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Common-Mode Rejection | |
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Cross-Talk in Surface Electromyograms | |
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Recommendations for Surface Electromyogram Reporting and Electrode Placement Procedures | |
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Processing of the Electromyogram | |
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Full-Wave Rectification | |
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Linear Envelope | |
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True Mathematical Integrators | |
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Relationship between Electromyogram and Biomechanical Variables | |
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Electromyogram versus Isometric Tension | |
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Electromyogram during Muscle Shortening and Lengthening | |
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Electromyogram Changes during Fatigue | |
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References | |
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Biomechanical Movement Synergies | |
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Introduction | |
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The Support Moment Synergy | |
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Relationship between Ms and the Vertical Ground Reaction Force | |
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Medial/Lateral and Anterior/Posterior Balance in Standing | |
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Quiet Standing | |
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Medial Lateral Balance Control during Workplace Tasks | |
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Dynamic Balance during Walking | |
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The Human Inverted Pendulum in Steady State Walking | |
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Initiation of Gait | |
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Gait Termination | |
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References | |
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Appendices | |
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KinematicKineticand Energy Data | |
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Walking Trial-Marker Locations and Mass and Frame Rate Information | |
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Raw Coordinate Data (cm) | |
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Filtered Marker Kinematics-Rib Cage and Greater Trochanter (Hip) | |
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Filtered Marker Kinematics-Femoral Lateral Epicondyle (Knee) and Head of Fibula | |
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Filtered Marker Kinematics-Lateral Malleolus (Ankle) and Heel | |
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Filtered Marker Kinematics-Fifth Metatarsal and Toe | |
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Linear and Angular Kinematics-Foot | |
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Linear and Angular Kinematics-Leg | |
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Linear and Angular Kinematics-Thigh | |
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Linear and Angular Kinematics-1/2 HAT | |
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Relative Joint Angular Kinematics-Ankle, Knee, and Hip | |
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Reaction Forces and Moments of Force-Ankle and Knee | |
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Reaction Forces and Moments of Force-Hip | |
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Segment Potential, Kinetic, and Total Energies-Foot, Leg, Thigh, and 1/2 HAT | |
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Power Generation/Absorption and Transfer-Ankle, Knee, and Hip | |
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Units and Definitions Related to Biomechanical and Electromyographical Measurements | |
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Base SI Units | |
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Derived SI Units | |
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Index | |