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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Introduction: Religious Studies and the Academic Study of Islam | |
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| September 11 and the Quest for a Normative Islam | |
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| The Insider-Outsider Debate | |
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| Critics Versus Caretakers | |
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| The "Authenticity Debate" in Islamic Studies | |
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| Identity Formations | |
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| Islam and Muslim Identities | |
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| On Diversity | |
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| Origins | |
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| Setting the Stage: Pre-Islamic Arabia | |
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| Pre-Islamic Arabia | |
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| Pre-Islamic Arabian Religions | |
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| Pre-Islamic Mecca | |
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| Monotheisms in Arabia | |
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| Later Muslim Accounts of Islamic Origins | |
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| Outsider and Skeptical Approaches to Islamic Origins | |
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| Islamic Origins: A Synthetic Approach | |
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| The Making of the Last Prophet | |
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| Sources | |
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| Muhammad at Mecca | |
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| Muhammad at Medina | |
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| Muhammad and the Jews of Medina | |
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| Muhammad's Wives | |
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| The Return to Mecca and Death of Muhammad | |
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| The Making of the Last Prophet | |
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| Polemical Literature Against Muhammad | |
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| The Deeds and Sayings of Muhammad: The Genre of Hadith | |
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| Representing Muhammad | |
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| The Quran: The Base Narrative | |
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| Overview | |
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| Traditional Accounts | |
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| The Critical View | |
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| The Linguistic Matrix of the Ancient Near East | |
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| Why Don't Muslims Have an "Old Testament"? | |
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| Messages and Contents | |
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| The Inimitability of the Quran | |
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| The Quran in Muslim Life | |
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| Tafsir: Commentary on the Quran | |
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| Ta'wil: Esoteric Interpretation of the Quran | |
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| Identity Formations | |
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| Islam Beyond the Arabian Peninsula: A Historical Overview | |
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| The Death of Muhammad and the Seeds of Division | |
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| The Events at the Portico of the Banu Sa'ida | |
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| The Four Rashidun | |
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| Abd al-Malik and the Creation of an Islamic Empire | |
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| Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period | |
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| The Abbasid Caliphate | |
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| Al-Andalus, or Muslim Spain | |
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| Independent Emirates | |
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| The View from the Edge | |
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| The Ottoman Empire | |
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| Early Sectarianism and the Formation of Shi'ism | |
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| Wilferd Madelung's The Succession to Muhammad | |
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| The Events at the Portico of the Banu Sa'ida: A Pro-Shi'i View | |
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| Shi'at Ali | |
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| The Events at Karbala | |
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| The Ghulat | |
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| The Importance of Ja'far al-Sadiq | |
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| The Role of the Imam | |
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| The Twelfth Imam | |
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| Shi'i Dynasties | |
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| Twelver Shi'ism | |
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| Other Shi'i Denominations | |
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| Distinctive Doctrines | |
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| Legal Developments and the Rise of Sunni Islam | |
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| The Origins of Islamic Law: Two Approaches | |
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| Understanding the Concept of Law in Islam | |
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| "Hadith Folk" and the Emergence of Sunni Islam | |
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| The Importance of Muhammad al-Shafi'i | |
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| Guardians of the Law: The Rise and Function of the Ulama | |
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| Naskh | |
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| Sources of Ascertaining the Sharia | |
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| The Closing of the Gates of Ijtihad | |
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| The Four Madhahib | |
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| Shi'i Legal Schools | |
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| Al-Azhar: The Center of Sunni Learning Today | |
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| Sufism | |
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| Locating Sufism | |
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| The Expansion-Asceticism Theory | |
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| Sources of the Ascetic Impulse | |
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| Geographic Diversity | |
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| Key Terms and Concepts | |
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| The Stations of Progression | |
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| "Sober" and "Intoxicated" Sufism | |
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| Some Key Figures | |
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| Institutional Sufism | |
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| Conservative Criticism of Sufism | |
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| Lived Sufism Today | |
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| Beliefs and Practices | |
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| Constituting Identities: Beliefs and Schools | |
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| The Rise of Muslim Theology (Kalam) | |
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| The Status of the Grave Sinner | |
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| Free Will and Predestination | |
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| Mutazilites and the Doctrine of the Created Quran | |
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| Ahmad ibn Hanbal | |
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| The Asharites | |
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| The Maturidis | |
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| Medieval Islamic Philosophy | |
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| The Five Doctrines of Muslim Faith | |
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| The Performance of Muslim Identities | |
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| The Mosque | |
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| Ritual Action | |
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| The Five Pillars | |
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| A Sixth Pillar: The Case of Jihad | |
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| Ritual Practice in Shi'ism | |
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| Muhammad's Birthday | |
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| "Popular" Islam | |
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| Sufism | |
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| Modern Variations | |
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| Encounters with Modernity | |
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| Definitions of Modernity | |
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| Colonialism and Orientalism | |
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| Maximalism and Minimalism | |
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| The Versatility of Islam in the Modern World: An Overview | |
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| Typology of Responses to Modernity | |
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| Constructing Muslim Women | |
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| Modern Attempts to Re-create Women's Lives During the Time of Muhammad | |
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| Gender and the Construction of Female Mystics | |
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| The Veil: A Contested Symbol | |
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| Traditional Patterns | |
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| Fundamentalist Constructions | |
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| Western Feminism and Islam | |
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| Contemporary Islamic Feminism | |
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| Islam Post-September 11 | |
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| Militant Voices: The Case of al-Qaeda | |
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| Interpreting the Events of September 11 | |
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| Islamophobia | |
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| Muslim Apologetics: The Need to Define a Liberal Islam | |
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| The Future | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Index | |