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| Preface | |
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| History, Background, and Basic Concepts | |
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| Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation | |
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| Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning | |
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| Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning | |
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| Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning | |
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| Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses and Applications | |
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| Avoidance and Punishment | |
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| Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning | |
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| Stimulus Control and Concept Learning | |
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| Comparative Cognition | |
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| Learning by Observation | |
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| Learning Motor Skills | |
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| Choice | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Author Index | |
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| Subject Index | |
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| Preface | |
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| History, Background, and Basic Concepts | |
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| The Search for General Principles of Learning | |
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| The Associationists | |
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| Aristotle | |
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| The British Associationists: Simple and Complex Ideas | |
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| Ebbinghaus's Experiments on Memory | |
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| The Effects of Repetition | |
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| The Effects of Time | |
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| The Role of Contiguity | |
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| The Influence of the Associationists and Ebbinghaus | |
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| Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Learning | |
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| The Use of Animal Subjects | |
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| The Emphasis on External Events | |
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| The Physiological Approach: Brain and Behavior | |
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| The Basic Characteristics of Neurons | |
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| Physiological Research on Simple Sensations | |
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| Physiological Research on Feature Detectors | |
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| Physiological Research on Learning | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation | |
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| Characteristics of Goal-Directed Systems | |
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| Reflexes | |
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| Tropisms and Orientation | |
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| Kineses | |
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| Taxes | |
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| Sequences of Behavior | |
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| Fixed Action Patterns | |
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| Reaction Chains | |
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| Innate Human Abilities and Predispositions | |
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| Habituation | |
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| General Principles of Habituation | |
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| Physiological Mechanisms of Habituation | |
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| Habituation in Emotional Responses: the Opponent-Process Theory | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning | |
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| Pavlov's Discovery and Its Impact | |
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| The Standard Paradigm of Classical Conditioning | |
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| The Variety of Conditioned Responses | |
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| Pavlov's Stimulus Substitution Theory | |
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| S-S or S-R Connections? | |
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| Basic Conditioning Phenomena | |
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| Acquisition | |
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| Extinction | |
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| Spontaneous Recovery, Disinhibition, and Rapid Reacquisition | |
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| Conditioned Inhibition | |
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| Generalization and Discrimination | |
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| The Importance of Timing in Classical Conditioning | |
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| CS-US Correlations | |
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| Higher Order Conditioning | |
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| Classical Conditioning Outside the Laboratory | |
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| Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses | |
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| Classical Conditioning and the Immune System | |
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| Applications in Behavior Therapy | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning | |
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| Theories of Associative Learning | |
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| The Blocking Effect | |
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| The Rescorla-Wagner Model | |
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| Other Theories | |
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| Summary | |
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| Types of Associations | |
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| Associations in First-Order Conditioning | |
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| Associations in Second-Order Conditioning | |
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| Associations with Contextual Stimuli | |
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| CS-CS Associations | |
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| Occasion Setting | |
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| Summary | |
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| Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning | |
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| The Contiguity Principle and Taste-Aversion Learning | |
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| Biological Preparedness in Taste-Aversion Learning | |
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| Biological Preparedness in Human Learning | |
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| Biological Constraints and the General-Principle Approach | |
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| The Form of the Conditioned Response | |
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| Drug Tolerance and Drug Cravings as Conditioned Responses | |
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| Conditioned Opponent Theories | |
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| Physiological Research on Classical Conditioning | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning | |
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| The Law of Effect | |
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| Thorndike's Experiments | |
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| Guthrie and Horton: Evidence for a Mechanical Strengthening Process | |
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| Superstitious Behaviors | |
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| The Procedure of Shaping, or Successive Approximations | |
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| Shaping Lever Pressing in a Rat | |
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| Shaping Behaviors in the Classroom | |
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| Shaping as a Tool in Behavior Modification | |
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| Making Shaping More Precise: Percentile Schedules | |
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| Versatility of the Shaping Process | |
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| The Research of B. F. Skinner | |
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| The Free Operant | |
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| The Three-Term Contingency | |
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| Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning | |
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| Resurgence | |
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| Conditioned Reinforcement | |
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| Response Chains | |
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| Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning | |
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| Instinctive Drift | |
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| Autoshaping | |
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| Reconciling Reinforcement Theory and Biological Constraints | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses and Applications | |
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| Plotting Moment-to-Moment Behavior: the Cumulative Recorder | |
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| The Four Simple Reinforcement Schedules | |
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| Fixed Ratio | |
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| Variable Ratio | |
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| Fixed Interval | |
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| Variable Interval | |
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| Extinction and the Four Simple Schedules | |
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| Other Reinforcement Schedules | |
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| Factors Affecting Performance on Reinforcement Schedules | |
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| Behavioral Momentum | |
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| Contingency-Shaped versus Rule-Governed Behaviors | |
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| Reinforcement History | |
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| Summary | |
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| The Experimental Analysis of Reinforcement Schedules | |
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| Cause of the FR Postreinforcement Pause | |
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| Comparisons of VR and VI Response Rates | |
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| Applications of Operant Conditioning | |
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| Teaching Language to Children with Autism | |
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| Token Reinforcement | |
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| Organizational Behavior Management | |
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| Behavior Therapy for Marital Problems | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Avoidance and Punishment | |
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| Avoidance | |
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| A Representative Experiment | |
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| Two-Factor Theory | |
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| Evidence Supporting Two-Factor Theory | |
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| Problems with Two-Factor Theory | |
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| One-Factor Theory | |
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| Cognitive Theory | |
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| Biological Constraints in Avoidance Learning | |
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| Conclusions about the Theories of Avoidance | |
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| Flooding as Behavior Therapy | |
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| Learned Helplessness | |
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| Punishment | |
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| Is Punishment the Opposite of Reinforcement? | |
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| Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment | |
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| Disadvantages of Using Punishment | |
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| Negative Punishment | |
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| Behavior Decelerators in Behavior Therapy | |
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| Positive Punishment | |
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| Negative Punishment: Response Cost and Time-Out | |
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| Other Techniques for Behavior Deceleration | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning | |
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| The Role of the Response | |
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| The Role of the Reinforcer | |
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| Is Reinforcement Necessary for Operant Conditioning? | |
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| Expectations about the Reinforcer | |
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| Can Reinforcement Control Visceral Responses? | |
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| Biofeedback | |
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| How Can We Predict What Will Be a Reinforcer? | |
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| Need Reduction | |
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| Drive Reduction | |
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| Trans-situationality | |
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| Premack's Principle | |
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| Response Deprivation Theory | |
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| The Functional Analysis of Behaviors and Reinforcers | |
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| Behavioral Economics | |
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| Optimization: Theory and Research | |
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| Elasticity and Inelasticity of Demand | |
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| Behavioral Economics and Drug Abuse | |
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| Other Applications | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Stimulus Control and Concept Learning | |
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| Generalization Gradients | |
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| Measuring Generalization Gradients | |
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| What Causes Generalization Gradients? | |
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| Is Stimulus Control Absolute or Relational? | |
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| Transposition and Peak Shift | |
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| Spence's Theory of Excitatory and Inhibitory Gradients | |
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| The Intermediate-Size Problem | |
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| Other Data, and Some Conclusions | |
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| Behavioral Contrast | |
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| �Errorless� Discrimination Learning | |
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| Transfer of Learning and Learning Sets | |
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| Concept Learning | |
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| The Structure of Natural Categories | |
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| Animal Studies on Natural Concept Learning | |
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| Developing Stimulus Equivalence | |
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| Stimulus Control in Behavior Modification | |
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| Stimulus Equivalence Training | |
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| Study Habits and Health Habits | |
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| Insomnia | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Comparative Cognition | |
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| Memory and Rehearsal | |
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| Short-Term Memory, or Working Memory | |
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| Rehearsal | |
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| Long-Term Memory, Retrieval, and Forgetting | |
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| Time, Number, and Serial Patterns | |
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| Experiments on an �Internal Clock� | |
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| Counting | |
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| Serial Pattern Learning | |
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| Chunking | |
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| Language and Reasoning | |
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| Teaching Language to Animals | |
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| Reasoning by Animals | |
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| Summary | |
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| Review Questions | |
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| Learning by Observation | |
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| Theories of Imitation | |
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| Imitation as an Instinct | |
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| Imitation as an Operant Response | |
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| Imitation as a Generalized Operant Response | |
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| Bandura's Theory of Imitation | |
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| Which Theory of Imitation Is Best? | |
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| Mirror Neurons and Imitation | |
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| Interactions Between Observational Learning and Operant Conditioning | |
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| Achievement Motivation | |
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| Aggression | |
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| Effects of the Mass Media | |
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| Television Violence and Aggressive Behavior | |
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| Video Games and Popular Music | |
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| What Can Be Learned Through Observation? | |
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| Phobias | |
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| Drug Use and Addictions | |
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| Cognitive Development | |
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| Moral Standards and Behavior | |
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| Modeling in Behavior Therapy | |
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| Facilitation of Low-Probability Behaviors | |