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| Preface | |
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| Fundamentals of Mechanical Measurement | |
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| The Process of Measurement: An Overview | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Significance of Mechanical Measurement | |
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| Fundamental Methods of Measurement | |
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| Direct Comparison | |
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| Using a Calibrated System | |
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| The Generalized Measuring System | |
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| First, or Sensor-Transducer, Stage | |
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| Second, or Signal-Conditioning, Stage | |
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| Third, or Recording-Readout, Stage | |
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| Types of Input Quantities | |
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| Time Dependence | |
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| Analog and Digital Signals | |
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| Measurement Standards | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Uncertainty: Accuracy of Results | |
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| Reporting Results | |
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| Laboratory Note or Technical Memo | |
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| Full Report | |
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| Technical Paper | |
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| Final Remarks | |
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| Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Historical Background of Measurement in the United States | |
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| The SI System | |
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| Establishment of the SI System | |
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| Metric Conversion in the United States | |
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| The Standard of Length | |
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| Relationship of the Meter to the Inch | |
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| The Standard of Mass | |
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| Time and Frequency Standards | |
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| Temperature Standards | |
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| Electrical Standards | |
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| Conversions Between Systems of Units | |
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| Summary | |
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| Assessing and Presenting Experimental Data | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Common Types of Error | |
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| Classification of Errors | |
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| Terms Used in Rating Instrument Performance | |
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| Introduction to Uncertainty | |
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| Estimation of Precision Uncertainty | |
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| Sample versus Population | |
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| Probability Distributions | |
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| Theory Based on the Population | |
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| Theory Based on the Sample | |
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| An Example of Sampling | |
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| Confidence Intervals for Large Samples | |
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| Confidence Intervals for Small Samples | |
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| Hypothesis Testing for a Single Mean for a Small Sample Size (n [lesser than or equal to] 30) | |
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| Hypothesis Testing for a Single Mean for a Large Sample Size (n [greater than or equal to] 30) | |
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| The t-Test Comparison of Sample Means | |
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| The Chi-Square (x[superscript 2]) Distribution | |
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| Goodness of Fit Based on the Gaussian Distribution | |
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| Statistical Analysis by Computer | |
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| Bias and Single-Sample Uncertainty | |
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| Single-Sample Precision Uncertainty | |
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| Propagation of Uncertainty | |
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| Examples of Uncertainty Analysis | |
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| Rating Resistors | |
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| Expected Uncertainty for Flowmeter Calibration | |
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| Minimizing Error in Designing Experiments | |
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| Graphical Presentation of Data | |
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| General Rules for Making Graphs | |
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| Choosing Coordinates and Producing Straight Lines | |
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| Line Fitting and the Method of Least Squares | |
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| Least Squares for Line Fits | |
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| Uncertainty in Line Fits | |
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| Software for Curve Fitting | |
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| Summary | |
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| The Analog Measurand: Time-Dependent Characteristics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Simple Harmonic Relations | |
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| Circular and Cyclic Frequency | |
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| Complex Relations | |
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| Beat Frequency and Heterodyning | |
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| Special Waveforms | |
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| Nonperiodic or Transient Waveforms | |
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| Amplitudes of Waveforms | |
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| Frequency Spectrum | |
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| Harmonic, or Fourier, Analysis | |
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| The Discrete Fourier Transform | |
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| Frequencies in Discretely Sampled Signals: Aliasing and Frequency Resolution | |
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| An Example of Discrete Fourier Analysis | |
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| Summary | |
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| The Response of Measuring Systems | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Amplitude Response | |
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| Frequency Response | |
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| Phase Response | |
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| Predicting Performance for Complex Waveforms | |
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| Delay, Rise Time, and Slew Rate | |
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| Response of Experimental System Elements | |
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| Simplified Physical Systems | |
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| Mechanical Elements | |
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| Mass | |
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| Spring Force | |
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| Damping | |
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| An Example of a Simple Mechanical System | |
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| The Importance of Damping | |
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| Dynamic Characteristics of Simplified Mechanical Systems | |
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| Single-Degree-of-Freedom Spring-Mass-Damper Systems | |
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| The Zero-Order System | |
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| Characteristics of First-Order Systems | |
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| The Step-Forced First-Order System | |
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| The Harmonically Excited First-Order System | |
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| Characteristics of Second-Order Systems | |
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| The Step-Excited Second-Order System | |
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| The Harmonically Excited Second-Order System | |
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| General Periodic Forcing | |
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| Electrical Elements | |
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| First-Order Electrical System | |
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| Simple Second-Order Electrical System | |
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| Calibration of System Response | |
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| Summary | |
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| Sensors | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Loading of the Signal Source | |
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| The Secondary Transducer | |
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| Classification of First-Stage Devices | |
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| Variable-Resistance Transducer Elements | |
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| Sliding-Contact Devices | |
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| Potentiometer Resolution | |
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| Potentiometer Linearity | |
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| The Resistance Strain Gage | |
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| Thermistors | |
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| The Thermocouple | |
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| Variable-Inductance Transducers | |
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| Simple Self-Inductance Arrangements | |
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| Two-Coil Mutual-Inductance Arrangements | |
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| The Differential Transformer | |
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| Variable-Reluctance Transducers | |
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| Capacitive Transducers | |
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| Piezoelectric Sensors | |
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| Semiconductor Sensors | |
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| Electrical Behavior of Semiconductors | |
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| pn-Junctions | |
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| Photodiodes | |
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| Light-Detecting Transducers | |
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| Thermal Detectors | |
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| Photon Detectors | |
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| Applications | |
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| Hall-Effect Sensors | |
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| Some Design-Related Problems | |
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| Manufacturing Tolerances | |
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| Some Temperature-Related Problems | |
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| Methods for Limiting Temperature Errors | |
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| Summary | |
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| Signal Conditioning | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Advantages of Electrical Signal Conditioning | |
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| Modulated and Unmodulated Signals | |
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| Input Circuitry | |
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| The Simple Current-Sensitive Circuit | |
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| The Ballast Circuit | |
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| Voltage-Dividing Circuits | |
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| The Voltage-Dividing Potentiometer | |
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| Loading Error | |
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| Use of End Resistors | |
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| Small Changes in Transducer Resistance | |
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| Resistance Bridges | |
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| The Voltage-Sensitive Wheatstone Bridge | |
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| The Current-Sensitive Wheatstone Bridge | |
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| The Constant-Current Bridge | |
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| The AC Resistance Bridge | |
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| Compensation for Leads | |
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| Adjusting Bridge Sensitivity | |
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| Reactance or Impedance Bridges | |
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| Resonant Circuits | |
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| Undesirable Resonance Conditions | |
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| Electronic Amplification or Gain | |
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| Electronic Amplifiers | |
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| Operational Amplifiers | |
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| Typical Op-Amp Specifications | |
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| Applications of the Op Amp | |
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| Special Amplifier Circuits | |
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| Instrumentation Amplifiers | |
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| The Charge Amplifier | |
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| Filters | |
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| Some Filter Theory | |
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| Active Filters | |
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| Differentiators and Integrators | |
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| Shielding and Grounding | |
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| Shielding | |
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| Grounding | |
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| Component Coupling Methods | |
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| Summary | |
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| Digital Techniques in Mechanical Measurements | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Why Use Digital Methods? | |
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| Digitizing Mechanical Inputs | |
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| Fundamental Digital Circuit Elements | |
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| Basic Logic Elements | |
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| Combination of Logic Elements: The Flip-Flop | |
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| IC Families | |
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| IC Oscillators and Clock Signals | |
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| Digital Displays | |
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| Number Systems | |
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| Binary Codes | |
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| Binary-Coded Decimal | |
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| Position Encoders and Gray Code | |
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| Alphanumeric Codes | |
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| Bar Codes | |
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| Some Simple Digital Circuitry | |
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| Events Counter | |
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| Gating | |
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| Frequency Meter | |
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| Wave Shaping | |
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| Integrated-Circuit Counter and Frequency Meter | |
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| Multiplexing and Demultiplexing | |
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| The Computer as a Measurement System | |
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| The Microprocessor | |
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| The Microcomputer | |
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| Read-Only Memory (ROM) | |
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| Random Access Memory (RAM) | |
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| Input and Output Ports (I/O Ports) | |
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| External Buses | |
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| Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion | |
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| A Digital-to-Analog Converter | |
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| An Analog-to-Digital Converter | |
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| Analog-to-Digital Conversion Considerations | |
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| Digital Signal Processing | |
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| Digital Images | |
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| Getting It All Together | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readout and Data Processing | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Electronic Counter | |
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| Event Counter | |
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| Time-Interval Meter | |
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| Events per Unit Time (EPUT) Meter | |
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| Count Error | |
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| Analog Electric Meter Indicators | |
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| Voltmeter Sensitivity | |
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| The Current Meter | |
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| AC Meters | |
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| The Multimeter and Resistance Measurement | |
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| Meters with Electronic Amplification | |
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| Digital-Readout Multimeters | |
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| The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) | |
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| Oscilloscope Amplifiers | |
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| Sawtooth Oscillator or Time-Base Generator | |
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| Synchronization or Triggering | |
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| Additional CRO Features | |
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| Multiple Trace | |
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| Magnification and Delayed Sweep | |
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| Digital Storage Oscilloscopes | |
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| Single-Ended and Differential Inputs | |
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| XY-Plotters | |
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| Digital Waveform Recorders | |
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| The Spectrum Analyzer | |
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| LabVIEW | |
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| Applied Mechanical Measurements | |
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| Measurement of Count, Events per Unit Time, Time Interval, and Frequency | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Use of Counters | |
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| Electronic Counters | |
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| EPUT Meters | |
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| Time-Interval Meter | |
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| Stroboscopy and High-Speed Imaging | |
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| The Stroboscope | |
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| High-Speed Imaging | |
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| Frequency Standards | |
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| Global Positioning System Signals | |
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| Radio Time and Frequency Transmission | |
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| Quartz-Crystal Oscillators | |
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| Complex-Wave Oscillators and Function Generators | |
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| Lissajous Figures for Finding Frequency and Phase Relations | |
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| Heterodyne and Phase-Lock Measurements of Frequency | |
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| Measurement of Rotary Motion | |
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| Displacement and Dimensional Measurement | |
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| Introduction | |
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| A Problem in Dimensional Measurement | |
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| Gage Blocks | |
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| Assembling Gage-Block Stacks | |
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| Surface Plates | |
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| Temperature Problems | |
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| Use of Comparators | |
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| Monochromatic Light | |
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| The Interferometer | |
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| Measuring Microscopes | |
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| Fixed-Scale Microscopes | |
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| Filar Microscopes | |
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| Traveling and Traveling-Stage Microscopes | |
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| The Draw-Tube Microscope | |
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| Focusing | |
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| Digital Microscopes | |
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| Whole-Field Displacement Measurement | |
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| Displacement Transducers | |
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| The Differential Transformer or LVDT | |
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| Input Power | |
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| Advantages of the LVDT | |
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| Surface Roughness | |
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| Strain and Stress: Measurement and Analysis | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Strain Measurement | |
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| The Electrical Resistance Strain Gage | |
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| The Metallic Resistance Strain Gage | |
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| Selection and Installation Factors for Bonded Metallic Strain Gages | |
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| Circuitry for the Metallic Strain Gage | |
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| The Strain-Gage Ballast Circuit | |
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| The Strain-Gage Bridge Circuit | |
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| Bridges with Two and Four Arms Sensitive to Strain | |
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| The Bridge Constant | |
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| Lead-Wire Error | |
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| The Simple Constant-Current Strain-Gage Circuit | |
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| Temperature Compensation | |
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| The Adjacent-Arm Compensating Gage | |
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| Self-Temperature Compensation | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Commercially Available Strain-Measuring Systems | |
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| The Basic Indicator | |
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| Strain-Gage Switching | |
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| Use of Strain Gages on Rotating Shafts | |
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| Stress-Strain Relationships | |
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| The Simple Uniaxial Stress Situation | |
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| The Biaxial Stress Situation | |
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| Gage Orientation and Interpretation of Results | |
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| Gages Connected in Series | |
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| Special Problems | |
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| Cross Sensitivity | |
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| Plastic Strains and the Postyield Gage | |
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| Fatigue Applications of Resistance Strain Gages | |
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| Cryogenic Temperature Applications | |
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| High-Temperature Applications | |
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| Creep | |
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| Residual Stress Determination | |
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| Final Remarks | |
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| Measurement of Force and Torque | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Measuring Methods | |
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| Mechanical Weighing Systems | |
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| The Analytical Balance | |
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| Multiple-Lever Systems | |
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| The Pendulum Force-Measuring Mechanism | |
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| Elastic Transducers | |
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| Calibration Adjustment | |
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| The Proving Ring | |
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| Strain-Gage Load Cells | |
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| Piezoelectric Load Cells | |
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| Ballistic Weighing | |
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| Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems | |
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| Torque Measurement | |
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| Mechanical and Hydraulic Dynamometers | |
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| Electric Dynamometers | |
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| Transmission Dynamometers | |
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| Measurement of Pressure | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Static and Dynamic Pressures in Fluids | |
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| Pressure-Measuring Transducers | |
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| Manometry | |
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| Bourdon-Tube Gages | |
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| Elastic Diaphragms | |
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| Flat Metal Diaphragms | |
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| Corrugated Metal Diaphragms | |
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| Semiconductor Diaphragms | |
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| Additional Pressure Transducers | |
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| Strain Gages and Flat Diaphragms | |
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| Inductive Transducers | |
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| Piezoelectric Transducers | |
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| Capacitative Transducers | |
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| Strain-Gage Pressure Cells | |
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| Measurement of High Pressures | |
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| Electrical Resistance Pressure Gages | |
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| Measurement of Low Pressures | |
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| The McLeod Gage | |
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| Thermal Conductivity Gages | |
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| Ionization Gages | |
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| Dynamic Characteristics of Pressure-Measuring Systems | |
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| Gas-Filled Systems | |
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| Liquid-Filled Systems | |
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| Calibration Methods | |
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| Periodic Pressure Sources | |
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| Aperiodic Pressure Sources | |
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| Measurement of Fluid Flow | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Flow Characteristics | |
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| Obstruction Meters | |
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| Obstruction Meters for Incompressible Flow | |
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| Venturi Tube Characteristics | |
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| Flow-Nozzle Characteristics | |
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| Orifice Characteristics | |
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| Relative Merits of the Venturi, Flow Nozzle, and Orifice | |
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| Obstruction Meters for Compressible Fluids | |
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| Choked Flow and the Critical Flow Venturi Meter | |
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| Additional Flowmeters | |
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| Turbine Meters | |
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| Electromagnetic Flowmeters | |
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| Coriolis Flowmeters | |
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| Vortex Shedding Flowmeters | |
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| Ultrasonic Flowmeters | |
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| Positive Displacement Flowmeters | |
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| The Variable-Area Meter | |
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| Calibration of Flowmeters | |
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| Measurements of Fluid Velocities | |
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| Pressure Probes | |
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| Incompressible Fluids | |
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| Compressible Fluids | |
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| Total-Pressure Probes | |
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| Static-Pressure Probes | |
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| Direction-Sensing Probes | |
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| Thermal Anemometry | |
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| Doppler-Shift Measurements | |
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| Laser-Doppler Anemometry | |
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| Ultrasonic-Doppler Anemometry | |
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| Flow Visualization | |
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| Temperature Measurements | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Use of Thermal Expansion | |
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| Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers | |
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| Calibration and Stem Correction | |
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| Bimetal Temperature-Sensing Elements | |
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| Pressure Thermometers | |
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| Thermoresistive Elements | |
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| Resistance Thermometers | |
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| Instrumentation for Resistance Thermometry | |
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| Thermistors | |
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| Thermocouples | |
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| Application Laws for Thermocouples | |
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| Thermocouple Materials and Construction | |
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| Values of the Thermocouple EMF | |
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| Measurement of Thermocouple EMF | |
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| Electronic Instruments | |
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| Thermopiles and Thermocouples Connected in Parallel | |
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| Semiconductor-Junction Temperature Sensors | |
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| The Linear Quartz Thermometer | |
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| Pyrometry | |
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| Radiation Pyrometry Theory | |
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| Total-Radiation Pyrometry | |
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| Spectral-Band Pyrometry | |
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| Infrared Pyrometry | |
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| Thermal Imaging | |
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| Other Methods of Temperature Indication | |
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| Temperature Measurement Errors | |
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| Errors Associated with Convection, Radiation, and Conduction | |
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| Measurement of Temperature in Rapidly Moving Gas | |
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| Temperature Element Response | |
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| Compensation for Temperature Element Response | |
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| Measurement of Heat Flux | |
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| Calibration of Temperature-Measuring Devices | |
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| Measurement of Motion | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Vibrometers and Accelerometers | |
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| Elementary Vibrometers and Vibration Detectors | |
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| Elementary Accelerometers | |
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| The Seismic Instrument | |
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| General Theory of the Seismic Instrument | |
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| The Vibration Pickup | |
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| Phase Shift in the Seismic Vibrometer | |
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| General Rule for Vibrometers | |
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| The Seismic Accelerometer | |
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| Phase Lag in the Accelerometer | |
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| Practical Design of Seismic Instruments | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Calibration of Vibrometers | |
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| Calibration of Accelerometers | |
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| Static Calibration | |
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| Steady-State Periodic Calibration | |
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| Response of the Seismic Instrument to Transients | |
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| Measurement of Velocity by the Laser Velocity Transducer | |
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| Vibration and Shock Testing | |
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| Vibrational Exciter Systems | |
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| Electromagnetic Systems | |
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| Mechanical-Type Exciters | |
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| Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems | |
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| Relative Merits and Limitations of Each System | |
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| Vibration Test Methods | |
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| The Brute-Force Method | |
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| The Resonance Method | |
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| Shock Testing | |
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| Shock Rigs | |
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| Air Gun Shock-Producing Devices | |
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| Spring-Loaded Test Rigs | |
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| A Hydraulic-Pneumatic Rig | |
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| Gravity Rigs | |
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| Relative Merits and Limitations of Each Shock Rig | |
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| Practical Shock Testing | |
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| Acoustical Measurements | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Characterization of Sound (Noise) | |
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| Basic Acoustical Parameters | |
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| Sound Pressure | |
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| Sound Pressure Level | |
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| Power, Intensity, and Power Level | |
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| Combination of Sound Pressure Levels | |
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| Attenuation with Distance | |
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| Psychoacoustic Relationships | |
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| Sound-Measuring Apparatus and Techniques | |
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| Microphones | |
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| The Sound Level Meter | |
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| Frequency Spectrum Analysis | |
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| The Discrete Fourier Transform | |
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| Applied Spectrum Analysis | |
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| Measurement and Interpretation of Industrial and Environmental Noise | |
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| Equivalent Sound Level, L[subscript eq] | |
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| Sound Exposure Level (SEL) | |
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| Sound Intensity Measurement | |
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| Notes on Some Practical Aspects of Sound Measurements | |
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| Calibration Methods | |
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| Final Remarks | |
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| Appendices | |
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| Standards and Conversion Equations | |
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| Theoretical Basis for Fourier Analysis | |
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| Number Systems | |
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| Some Useful Data | |
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| Stress and Strain Relationships | |
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| Statistical Tests of Least Squares Fits | |
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| Answers to Selected Problems | |
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| Index | |