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Understanding Grading | |
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Introduction | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Why Grading | |
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Purposes for Grading | |
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Definitions of Terms | |
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Grading | |
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Achievement | |
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Validity | |
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Reliability | |
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Organization | |
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Self-Reflection: Now and Later | |
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Exercises | |
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Grading in Its Contexts | |
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Key Concepts | |
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The Historical Context of Grading | |
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Grading at Universities, 1640s to 1800s | |
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Grading in the Common School, 1800s | |
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1890 to 1920 | |
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1920 to 1930 | |
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1930 to 1960 | |
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1960 to 1980 | |
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1980 to 2000 | |
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2000 to the Present | |
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Current Context of Grading | |
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Social Context of Grading | |
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Legal Context of Grading | |
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Confidentiality | |
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Grade Penalties | |
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Appeals Policies and Due Process | |
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Educator Responsibilities | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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The Educational Psychology of Grading | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Student Perceptions | |
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Influence of Grading Practices on Motivation to Learn | |
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Attribution Theory | |
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Goal Orientations | |
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Self-Worth Theory | |
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Function of Feedback to Students | |
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory | |
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Formative Assessment as Feedback for Learning | |
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The Classroom Assessment Environment | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Part 1 Exercises | |
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Integrating Assessment and Instruction | |
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Designing Assessments That Reflect Intentions for Learning | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Matching Assessment and Instruction | |
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Paper-and-Pencil Tests | |
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Novel Applications Are Required to Tap Higher Order Thinking | |
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Performance Assessments | |
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Scoring Is Part of the Match | |
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Tests | |
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Performance Assessments | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Deciding on the Bases for Grading | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Formative and Summative Evaluation | |
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Bases for Grading | |
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Kinds of Grading Schemes | |
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Points or Percents | |
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Rubrics | |
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Assessment Versus Grading | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Providing Grades and Other Feedback to Students | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Providing Informative Feedback | |
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Student Involvement in Assessment | |
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Creating Grading Criteria | |
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Applying Criteria to Their Own and Peers' Work | |
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Going Over Test Results | |
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Grading Is a Skill | |
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Exemplars | |
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More Practice | |
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Fourth-Grade "Dogs and Cats" Essays | |
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High School English Essays | |
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Grading Tests | |
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Grading Term Papers, Written Reports, and Projects | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Part 2 Exercises | |
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Combining Grades Into Marks for Report Cards | |
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Grading Policies and Formats | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Grades Should Reflect Achievement | |
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Report Card Formats | |
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Physical Characteristics | |
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Administrative Policy | |
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Instructional Targets | |
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Grading Policies | |
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Grade-Point Averages | |
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Self-Reflection Is Critical | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Developmental Concerns in Grading | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Grading in Special Education | |
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Adapting Methods of Arriving at Report Card Grades | |
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Adapting Reporting Mechanisms for Students with Special Needs | |
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Adapting Grades for Individual Assignments | |
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Providing Feedback to Students with Special Needs | |
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Grading in Early Childhood | |
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Grading in Elementary and Secondary Classrooms | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Developing Skills at Combining Grades into Marks for Report Cards | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Arriving at a Categorical Grade | |
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Arriving at a Letter Grade via Rubrics | |
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The Median Method for Calculating Report Card Grades | |
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Combining Percent Scores and Rubrics or Grades | |
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Arriving at a Letter Grade via Points | |
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Letter Grades as Averages of Percentage Grades | |
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Letter Grades as Percentage of Total Possible Points | |
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The Influence of Zeros in Point-Based Grading | |
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Reviewing Borderline Grades | |
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Electronic Methods: Gradebook Packages, Web-Based Systems | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Other Ways of Communicating About Student Achievement | |
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Key Concepts | |
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Sending Work Home | |
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A Communication Process | |
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Portfolios | |
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Set a Purpose | |
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Plan the Logistics | |
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Collect the Evidence | |
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Interpret the Evidence | |
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Communicate the Information and Listen to the Response | |
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Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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Narratives | |
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Set a Purpose | |
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Plan the Logistics and Collect the Evidence | |
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Interpret the Evidence and Communicate the Information | |
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Listen to the Response | |
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Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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Parent-Teacher, Student-Teacher, or Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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Set a Purpose | |
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Plan the Logistics | |
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Collect the Evidence | |
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Interpret the Evidence, Communicate the Information, and Listen to the Response | |
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Strengths and Weaknesses | |
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Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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Student-Teacher Conferences | |
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Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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Conclusion | |
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Exercises | |
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Part 3 Exercises | |
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Test Blueprints | |
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Do's and Don'ts for Writing Good Test Items | |
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Alternative Assessment Checklist | |
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Key for Sample Papers from Chapter 6 | |
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References | |
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Index | |