| |
| |
Preface | |
| |
| |
Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of the Environment | |
| |
| |
In Situ Data Collection | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Data Collection | |
| |
| |
Maximal/Minimal Definitions | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Advantages and Limitations | |
| |
| |
The Remote Sensing Process | |
| |
| |
Statement of the Problem | |
| |
| |
Identification of In Situ and Remote Sensing Data Requirements | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Data Collection | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Data Analysis | |
| |
| |
Information Presentation | |
| |
| |
Earth Observation Economics | |
| |
| |
Earth Resource Analysis Perspective | |
| |
| |
Book Organization | |
| |
| |
| |
Electromagnetic Radiation Principles | |
| |
| |
Conduction, Convection, Radiation | |
| |
| |
Electromagnetic Radiation Models | |
| |
| |
Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy | |
| |
| |
The Particle Model - Radiation from Atomic Structures | |
| |
| |
Atmospheric Energy-Matter Interaction | |
| |
| |
Refraction | |
| |
| |
Scattering | |
| |
| |
Absorption | |
| |
| |
Reflectance | |
| |
| |
Terrain Energy-Matter Interactions | |
| |
| |
Hemispherical Reflectance, Absorptance, and Transmittance | |
| |
| |
Radiant Flux Density | |
| |
| |
Atmospheric Energy-Matter Interactions Again | |
| |
| |
Energy-Matter Interactions at the Sensor | |
| |
| |
Target and Path Radiance | |
| |
| |
| |
History of Aerial Photography and Aerial Platforms | |
| |
| |
History of Photography | |
| |
| |
Light and Color | |
| |
| |
The Camera Obscura | |
| |
| |
Invention of Light-sensitive Emulsions and Methods of Permanently Fixing the Image | |
| |
| |
Photography from Aerial Platforms | |
| |
| |
Ornithopters | |
| |
| |
Lighter-Than-Air Flight Using Balloons | |
| |
| |
Lighter-Than-Air Flight Using Kites | |
| |
| |
Heavier-Than-Air Flight Using Rockets | |
| |
| |
Heavier-Than-Air Flight Using Pigeons, Gliders, and Aircraft | |
| |
| |
Photo-reconnaissance in WW I and WW II | |
| |
| |
Aerial Photography in World War I | |
| |
| |
Aerial Photography in World War II | |
| |
| |
Cold War Photo-Reconnaissance | |
| |
| |
Genetrix Reconnaissance Balloons | |
| |
| |
U-2 Aircraft Reconnaissance Program | |
| |
| |
The SR-71 | |
| |
| |
Airborne Stealth Technology | |
| |
| |
Satellite Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
Corona | |
| |
| |
Ongoing Satellite Sentinels | |
| |
| |
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles | |
| |
| |
Tactical and Endurance UAVs | |
| |
| |
UAV Payloads and Other Considerations | |
| |
| |
Commercial Remote Sensing Platforms | |
| |
| |
| |
Aerial Photography - Vantage Point, Cameras, Filters, and Film | |
| |
| |
Vertical and Oblique Vantage Points | |
| |
| |
Vertical Aerial Photography | |
| |
| |
Oblique Aerial Photography | |
| |
| |
Aerial Cameras | |
| |
| |
Aerial Camera Components Compared with the Eye | |
| |
| |
Types of Aerial Cameras | |
| |
| |
Aerial Photography Filtration | |
| |
| |
Types, Sizes, and Colors of Filters | |
| |
| |
Aerial Photography Films | |
| |
| |
General Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions | |
| |
| |
Black-and-White Photographic Emulsions | |
| |
| |
Color Photographic Emulsions | |
| |
| |
Planning Aerial Photography Missions | |
| |
| |
Time of Day-Sun Angle | |
| |
| |
Weather | |
| |
| |
Flightline Layout | |
| |
| |
| |
Elements of Visual Image Interpretation | |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
The Aerial/Regional Perspective | |
| |
| |
Three-Dimensional Depth Perception | |
| |
| |
Obtaining Knowledge Beyond Our Human Visual Perception | |
| |
| |
Historical Image Record and Change Detection Documentation | |
| |
| |
Elements of Image Interpretation | |
| |
| |
Methods of Search | |
| |
| |
Using Collateral Information | |
| |
| |
Convergence of Evidence | |
| |
| |
The Multi-concept | |
| |
| |
| |
Photogrammetry | |
| |
| |
Flightlines of Vertical Aerial Photography | |
| |
| |
Fiducial Marks and Principal Points | |
| |
| |
Geometry of Vertical Aerial Photography | |
| |
| |
Scale and Height Measurement on Single Vertical Aerial Photographs | |
| |
| |
Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph Over Level Terrain | |
| |
| |
Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph Over Variable Terrain | |
| |
| |
Height Measurement from Single Aerial Photographs | |
| |
| |
Stereoscopic Measurement of Object Height or Terrain Elevation | |
| |
| |
Fundamentals of Human Stereoscopy | |
| |
| |
Stereoscopy Applied to Aerial Photography | |
| |
| |
Stereoscopic Aerial Photography - How Does It Work? | |
| |
| |
Digital Elevation Models, Orthophotos, and Planimetric Features from Soft-copy Photogrammetry | |
| |
| |
Collection of Accurate Horizontal and Vertical Ground Control | |
| |
| |
Collection of Stereoscopic Aerial Photography or Other Remote Sensor Data | |
| |
| |
Image Digitization Technology | |
| |
| |
Soft-Copy Photogrammetry | |
| |
| |
Spot Elevations, Contours, and Digital Elevation Models | |
| |
| |
Creation of Digital Orthoimages | |
| |
| |
Extraction of Thematic Features of Interest | |
| |
| |
Area Measurement | |
| |
| |
Area Measurement of Well-known Geometric Shapes | |
| |
| |
Area Measurement of Irregularly Shaped Polygons | |
| |
| |
| |
Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems | |
| |
| |
Digital Multispectral Data Collection | |
| |
| |
Digital Image Terminology | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Systems to be Examined | |
| |
| |
Multispectral Imaging Using Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors | |
| |
| |
Earth Resource Technology Satellites and the Landsat Sensor Systems | |
| |
| |
NOAA Multispectral Scanner Sensors | |
| |
| |
ORBIMAGE and NASA Sea-viewing Wide Field of View Sensor (SeaWiFS) | |
| |
| |
Aircraft Multispectral Scanners | |
| |
| |
Multispectral Imaging Using Linear Arrays | |
| |
| |
SPOT Sensor Systems | |
| |
| |
Indian Remote Sensing Systems | |
| |
| |
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) | |
| |
| |
Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) | |
| |
| |
Very-High-Resolution Linear Array Remote Sensing Systems | |
| |
| |
Imaging Spectrometry Using Linear and Area Arrays | |
| |
| |
Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) | |
| |
| |
Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager 1500 | |
| |
| |
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) | |
| |
| |
Digital Frame Cameras Based on Area Arrays | |
| |
| |
Small-format Digital Data Collection: Leica Geosystems Emerge Sensor | |
| |
| |
Large-format Digital Data Collection: Z/1 Digital Modular Camera | |
| |
| |
Large-format Digital Data Collection: Vexcel UltraCam based on Area Arrays | |
| |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
History of Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Radiation Properties | |
| |
| |
Kinetic Heat, Temperature, Radiant Energy, and Radiant Flux | |
| |
| |
Methods of Transferring Heat | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Atmospheric Windows | |
| |
| |
Thermal Radiation Laws | |
| |
| |
Stefan-Boltzmann Law | |
| |
| |
Wien's Displacement Law | |
| |
| |
Emissivity | |
| |
| |
Kirchoff's Radiation Law | |
| |
| |
Thermal Properties of Terrain | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Data Collection | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Based on Multispectral Scanners | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Based on Area- and Linear-Arrays | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Environmental Considerations | |
| |
| |
Diurnal Temperature Cycle of Typical Materials | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Examples | |
| |
| |
Water Pollution Monitoring: Thermal Effluent in the Savannah River | |
| |
| |
Water Pollution Monitoring: Leaking Septic Tanks | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Residential Insulation Surveys | |
| |
| |
Thermal Infrared Commercial/Industrial Roof Moisture Surveys | |
| |
| |
Analysis of the Urban Heat Island Effect | |
| |
| |
Use of Thermal Infrared Imagery for Forestry Applications | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Plant Stress Degree Days | |
| |
| |
| |
Active and Passive Microwave Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
History of Active Microwave (RADAR) Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
Active Microwave System Components | |
| |
| |
Sending and Receiving a Pulse of Microwave Energy - System Components | |
| |
| |
Slant-Range versus Ground-Range RADAR Image Geometry | |
| |
| |
Relief Displacement, Image Foreshortening, Layover, Shadows, and Speckle | |
| |
| |
Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems | |
| |
| |
RADAR Environmental Considerations | |
| |
| |
Surface Roughness Characteristics | |
| |
| |
Electrical Characteristics (Complex Dielectric Constant) and the Relationship with Moisture Content | |
| |
| |
Vegetation Response to Microwave Energy | |
| |
| |
Water Response to Microwave Energy | |
| |
| |
Urban Structure Response to Microwave Energy | |
| |
| |
SAR Remote Sensing from Space | |
| |
| |
Seasat | |
| |
| |
Shuttle Imaging Radar SIR-A, SIR-B, SIR-C and Topography Mission | |
| |
| |
RADARSAT and RADARSAT-2 | |
| |
| |
European Space Agency ERS-1 and ERS-2 | |
| |
| |
European Space Agency Envisat ASAR | |
| |
| |
RADAR Interferometry | |
| |
| |
Interferometric Topographic Mapping | |
| |
| |
Interferometric Velocity Mapping | |
| |
| |
Passive Microwave Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
Passive Microwave Radiometers | |
| |
| |
| |
LIDAR Remote Sensing | |
| |
| |
LIDAR Principles | |
| |
| |
LIDAR Laser and Scanning System | |
| |
| |
LIDAR Laser Location | |
| |
| |
LIDAR Antenna Attitude (Orientation) | |
| |
| |
LIDAR Post-Processing of Multiple Returns | |
| |
| |
Extraction of First, Intermediate and/or Last Return DSMs | |
| |
| |
Extraction of Bare-Earth Digital Terrain Models | |
| |
| |
Accuracy of LIDAR Measurements | |
| |
| |
NSSDA Horizontal and Vertical Accuracy Assessment | |
| |
| |
Influence of Landcover, Slope, and Leaf-on/off Condition | |
| |
| |
LIDAR-derived Vegetation Information | |
| |
| |
LIDAR-derived Urban Information | |
| |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of Vegetation | |
| |
| |
Photosynthesis Fundamentals | |
| |
| |
Spectral Characteristics of Vegetation | |
| |
| |
Dominant Factors Controlling Leaf Reflectance | |
| |
| |
Temporal Characteristics of Vegetation | |
| |
| |
Natural Phenological Cycles | |
| |
| |
Managed Phenological Cycles | |
| |
| |
Vegetation Indices | |
| |
| |
Landscape Ecology Metrics | |
| |
| |
Landscape Indicators and Patch Metrics | |
| |
| |
Biodiversity and GAP Analysis | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of Vegetation Change | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Inland Wetland Successional Changes | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing South African Agriculture | |
| |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of Water | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Surface Water Biophysical Characteristics | |
| |
| |
Water Surface, Subsurface Volumetric, and Bottom Radiance | |
| |
| |
Spectral Response of Water as a Function of Wavelength | |
| |
| |
Spectral Response of Water as a Function of Organic/Inorganic Constituents | |
| |
| |
Water Penetration and Bathymetry | |
| |
| |
Water Surface Temperature | |
| |
| |
Precipitation | |
| |
| |
Visible-Infrared Techniques | |
| |
| |
Active and Passive Microwave Techniques | |
| |
| |
Aerosols and Clouds | |
| |
| |
Aerosols | |
| |
| |
Clouds | |
| |
| |
Water Vapor | |
| |
| |
Snow | |
| |
| |
Snow in the Visible Spectrum | |
| |
| |
Snow in the Middle-Infrared and Microwave Regions | |
| |
| |
Water Quality Modeling | |
| |
| |
An Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS Water Quality Model | |
| |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape | |
| |
| |
National Spatial Data Infrastructure | |
| |
| |
Urban Resolution Considerations | |
| |
| |
Urban/Suburban Temporal Resolution Considerations | |
| |
| |
Urban/Suburban Spectral Resolution Considerations | |
| |
| |
Urban/Suburban Spatial Resolution Considerations | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing Land Use and Land Cover | |
| |
| |
Land-Use/Land-Cover Classification Schemes | |
| |
| |
Urban Land-Use/Land-Cover Classification (Levels I to IV) | |
| |
| |
Residential Land Use | |
| |
| |
Commercial and Services Land Use | |
| |
| |
Industrial Land Use | |
| |
| |
Transportation Infrastructure | |
| |
| |
Communications and Utilities | |
| |
| |
Urban Digital Elevation Model Creation | |
| |
| |
Meteorological Data | |
| |
| |
Urban Hydrology | |
| |
| |
Critical Environmental Area Assessment | |
| |
| |
Disaster Emergency Response | |
| |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology | |
| |
| |
Soil Characteristics and Taxonomy | |
| |
| |
Soil Horizons | |
| |
| |
Soil Grain Size and Texture | |
| |
| |
Soil Taxonomy | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of Soil Properties | |
| |
| |
Soil Texture and Moisture Content | |
| |
| |
Soil Organic Matter and Biological Soil Crusts | |
| |
| |
Iron Oxide | |
| |
| |
Soil Salinity | |
| |
| |
Surface Roughness | |
| |
| |
Remote Sensing of Rocks and Minerals | |
| |
| |
Imaging Spectroscopy of Rocks and Minerals | |
| |
| |
Geology | |
| |
| |
Lithology | |
| |
| |
Structure | |
| |
| |
Drainage Morphometry and Pattern | |
| |
| |
Geomorphology | |
| |
| |
Igneous Landforms | |
| |
| |
Landforms Developed on Horizontal Strata | |
| |
| |
Landforms Developed on Folded Strata | |
| |
| |
Fault-Controlled Landforms | |
| |
| |
Fluvial Landforms | |
| |
| |
Karst Landforms | |
| |
| |
Shoreline Landforms | |
| |
| |
Glacial Landforms | |
| |
| |
Eolian Landforms | |
| |
| |
| |
In Situ Reflectance Measurement | |
| |
| |
Spectral Reflectance of a Material | |
| |
| |
Reference Material | |
| |
| |
Illumination Considerations | |
| |
| |
In Situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement Using Solar Illumination | |
| |
| |
In Situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement Using Artificial Illumination | |
| |
| |
Soil Taxonomy | |
| |
| |
Characteristics of the Spectroradiometer Used to Obtain In Situ Reflectance | |
| |
| |
Spectral Region of Interest | |
| |
| |
Spectral Resolution | |
| |
| |
Spectral Sampling Interval | |
| |
| |
Spectrometer Design and Data Collection Speed | |
| |
| |
Viewing Geometry and Field of View | |
| |
| |
Candidate Spectroradiometers | |
| |
| |
| |
Sources of Remote Sensing Information | |
| |
| |
Index | |