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Preface | |
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Nomenclature | |
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Introduction | |
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Safety Programs | |
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Engineering Ethics | |
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Accident and Loss Statistics | |
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Acceptable Risk | |
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Public Perceptions | |
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The Nature of the Accident Process | |
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Inherent Safety | |
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Four Significant Disasters | |
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Flixborough, England | |
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Bhopal, India | |
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Seveso, Italy | |
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Pasadena, Texas | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Toxicology | |
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How Toxicants Enter Biological Organisms | |
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Gastrointestinal Tract | |
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Skin | |
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Respiratory System | |
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How Toxicants Are Eliminated from Biological Organisms | |
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Effects of Toxicants on Biological Organisms | |
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Toxicological Studies | |
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Dose versus Response | |
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Models for Dose and Response Curves | |
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Relative Toxicity | |
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Threshold Limit Values | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Industrial Hygiene | |
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Government Regulations | |
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Laws and Regulations | |
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Creating a Law | |
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Creating a Regulation | |
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OSHA: Process Safety Management | |
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EPA: Risk Management Plan | |
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Industrial Hygiene: Identification | |
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Material Safety Data Sheets | |
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Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation | |
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Evaluating Exposures to Volatile Toxicants by Monitoring | |
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Evaluation of Worker Exposures to Dusts | |
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Evaluating Worker Exposures to Noise | |
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Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors | |
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Industrial Hygiene: Control | |
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Respirators | |
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Ventilation | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Source Models | |
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Introduction to Source Models | |
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Flow of Liquid through a Hole | |
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Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank | |
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Flow of Liquids through Pipes | |
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2-K Method | |
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Flow of Vapor through Holes | |
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Flow of Gases through Pipes | |
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Adiabatic Flows | |
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Isothermal Flows | |
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Flashing Liquids | |
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Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling | |
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Realistic and Worst-Case Releases | |
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Conservative Analysis | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Toxic Release and Dispersion Models | |
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Parameters Affecting Dispersion | |
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Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models | |
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Steady-State Continuous Point Release with No Wind | |
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Puff with No Wind | |
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Non-Steady-State Continuous Point Release with No Wind | |
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Steady-State Continuous Point Source Release with Wind | |
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Puff with No Wind and Eddy Diffusivity Is a Function of Direction | |
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Steady-State Continuous Point Source Release with Wind and Eddy Diffusivity Is a Function of Direction | |
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Puff with Wind | |
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Puff with No Wind and with Source on Ground | |
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Steady-State Plume with Source on Ground | |
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Continuous Steady-State Source with Source at Height H[subscript r] above the Ground | |
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Pasquill-Gifford Model | |
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Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Ground Level, Coordinates Fixed at Release Point, Constant Wind Only in x Direction with Constant Velocity u | |
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Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Ground Level and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u | |
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Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Height H[subscript r] above Ground Level and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u | |
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Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height H[subscript r] above Ground Level and a Coordinate System on the Ground That Moves with the Puff | |
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Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height H[subscript r] above Ground Level and a Coordinate System Fixed on the Ground at the Release Point | |
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Worst-Case Conditions | |
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Limitations to Pasquill-Gifford Dispersion Modeling | |
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Dense Gas Dispersion | |
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Toxic Effect Criteria | |
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Effect of Release Momentum and Buoyancy | |
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Release Mitigation | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Fires and Explosions | |
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The Fire Triangle | |
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Distinction between Fires and Explosions | |
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Definitions | |
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Flammability Characteristics of Liquids and Vapors | |
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Liquids | |
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Gases and Vapors | |
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Vapor Mixtures | |
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Flammability Limit Dependence on Temperature | |
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Flammability Limit Dependence on Pressure | |
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Estimating Flammability Limits | |
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Limiting Oxygen Concentration and Inerting | |
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Flammability Diagram | |
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Ignition Energy | |
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Autoignition | |
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Auto-Oxidation | |
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Adiabatic Compression | |
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Ignition Sources | |
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Sprays and Mists | |
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Explosions | |
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Detonation and Deflagration | |
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Confined Explosions | |
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Blast Damage Resulting from Overpressure | |
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TNT Equivalency | |
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TNO Multi-Energy Method | |
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Energy of Chemical Explosions | |
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Energy of Mechanical Explosions | |
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Missile Damage | |
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Blast Damage to People | |
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Vapor Cloud Explosions | |
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Boiling-Liquid Expanding-Vapor Explosions | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Designs to Prevent Fires and Explosions | |
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Inerting | |
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Vacuum Purging | |
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Pressure Purging | |
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Combined Pressure-Vacuum Purging | |
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Vacuum and Pressure Purging with Impure Nitrogen | |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Pressure and Vacuum Inerting Procedures | |
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Sweep-Through Purging | |
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Siphon Purging | |
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Using the Flammability Diagram To Avoid Flammable Atmospheres | |
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Static Electricity | |
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Fundamentals of Static Charge | |
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Charge Accumulation | |
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Electrostatic Discharges | |
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Energy from Electrostatic Discharges | |
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Energy of Electrostatic Ignition Sources | |
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Streaming Current | |
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Electrostatic Voltage Drops | |
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Energy of Charged Capacitors | |
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Capacitance of a Body | |
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Balance of Charges | |
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Controlling Static Electricity | |
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General Design Methods To Prevent Electrostatic Ignitions | |
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Relaxation | |
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Bonding and Grounding | |
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Dip Pipes | |
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Increasing Conductivity with Additives | |
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Handling Solids without Flammable Vapors | |
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Handling Solids with Flammable Vapors | |
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Explosion-Proof Equipment and Instruments | |
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Explosion-Proof Housings | |
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Area and Material Classification | |
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Design of an XP Area | |
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Ventilation | |
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Open-Air Plants | |
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Plants Inside Buildings | |
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Sprinkler Systems | |
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Miscellaneous Designs for Preventing Fires and Explosions | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Introduction to Reliefs | |
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Relief Concepts | |
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Definitions | |
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Location of Reliefs | |
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Relief Types | |
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Relief Scenarios | |
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Data for Sizing Reliefs | |
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Relief Systems | |
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Relief Installation Practices | |
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Relief Design Considerations | |
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Horizontal Knockout Drum | |
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Flares | |
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Scrubbers | |
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Condensers | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Relief Sizing | |
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Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Liquid Service | |
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Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service | |
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Rupture Disc Reliefs in Liquid Service | |
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Rupture Disc Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service | |
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Two-Phase Flow during Runaway Reaction Relief | |
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Simplified Nomograph Method | |
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Deflagration Venting for Dust and Vapor Explosions | |
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Vents for Low-Pressure Structures | |
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Vents for High-Pressure Structures | |
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Venting for Fires External to Process Vessels | |
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Reliefs for Thermal Expansion of Process Fluids | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Hazards Identification | |
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Process Hazards Checklists | |
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Hazards Surveys | |
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Hazards and Operability Studies | |
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Safety Reviews | |
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Other Methods | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Risk Assessment | |
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Review of Probability Theory | |
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Interactions between Process Units | |
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Revealed and Unrevealed Failures | |
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Probability of Coincidence | |
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Redundancy | |
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Common Mode Failures | |
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Event Trees | |
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Fault Trees | |
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Determining the Minimal Cut Sets | |
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Quantitative Calculations Using the Fault Tree | |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Fault Trees | |
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Relationship between Fault Trees and Event Trees | |
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QRA and LOPA | |
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Quantitative Risk Analysis | |
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Layer of Protection Analysis | |
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Consequence | |
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Frequency | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Accident Investigations | |
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Learning from Accidents | |
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Layered Investigations | |
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Investigation Process | |
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Investigation Summary | |
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Aids for Diagnosis | |
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Fires | |
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Explosions | |
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Sources of Ignition in Vessels | |
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Pressure Effects | |
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Medical Evidence | |
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Miscellaneous Aids to Diagnosis | |
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Aids for Recommendations | |
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Control Plant Modifications | |
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User-Friendly Designs | |
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Block Valves | |
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Double Block and Bleed | |
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Preventive Maintenance | |
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Analyzers | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Case Histories | |
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Static Electricity | |
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Tank Car Loading Explosion | |
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Explosion in a Centrifuge | |
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Duct System Explosion | |
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Conductor in a Solids Storage Bin | |
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Pigment and Filter | |
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Pipefitter's Helper | |
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Lessons Learned | |
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Chemical Reactivity | |
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Bottle of Isopropyl Ether | |
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Nitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid Decomposition | |
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Organic Oxidation | |
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Lessons Learned | |
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System Designs | |
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Ethylene Oxide Explosion | |
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Ethylene Explosion | |
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Butadiene Explosion | |
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Light Hydrocarbon Explosion | |
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Pump Vibration | |
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Pump Failure | |
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Ethylene Explosion (1) | |
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Ethylene Explosion (2) | |
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Ethylene Oxide Explosion | |
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Lessons Learned | |
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Procedures | |
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Leak Testing a Vessel | |
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Man Working in Vessel | |
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Vinyl Chloride Explosion | |
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Dangerous Water Expansion | |
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Phenol-Formaldehyde Runaway Reaction | |
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Conditions and Secondary Reaction Cause Explosion | |
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Fuel-Blending Tank Explosion | |
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Lessons Learned | |
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Conclusion | |
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Suggested Reading | |
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Problems | |
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Unit Conversion Constants | |
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Flammability Data for Selected Hydrocarbons | |
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Detailed Equations for Flammability Diagrams | |
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Equations Useful for Placing Vessels into and out of Service | |
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Formal Safety Review Report for Example 10-4 | |
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Saturation Vapor Pressure Data | |